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Astronomy and particle physics are no longer seen as vital by the US establishment, so funding has fallen. But our work creates a sense of wonder, and wonder matters, says Chanda Prescod-Weinstein
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Tag: particle physics
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You can't put a price on the sense of awe particle physics inspires
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The next generation particle detector
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Dr Grzegorz Kalicy is leading developments in cutting-edge DIRC technology to advance particle physics, which will play a key role in the future Electron-Ion Collider.
In the world of particle physics, identifying the vast array of particles produced during high-energy collisions is essential for understanding the Universeâs fundamental structure and governing forces. One of the new and important tools for this task is the DIRC (Detection of Internally Reflected Cherenkov light) detector, which measures the faint light emitted by particles as they pass through. DIRC technology has evolved significantly since its first implementation in the BaBar experiment at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), and today the challenge is to push it even further.
At the forefront of this advancement is Dr Greg Kalicy, an Associate Professor at the Catholic University of America in Washington DC, who is driving and co-ordinating an international effort to develop the next-generation high-performance DIRC (hpDIRC) detector. This detector will play a critical role in the Electron-Ion Collider (EIC) â a particle accelerator experiment poised to explore the fundamental structure of matter. With his experience in the PANDA Barrel DIRC group and the GlueX DIRC group, Dr Kalicy has been pivotal in advancing DIRC technology to meet the extreme demands of modern experiments.
The DIRC Principle: A unique solution for particle identification
DIRC detectors work by capturing and analysing Cherenkov light, which is emitted with unique properties when charged particles move through a medium faster than light can travel in that medium. The light is trapped within specially designed quartz bars and guided, much like in optical fibres, through internal reflections. This allows the Cherenkov light to travel over long distances with minimal loss, eventually reaching an expansion volume where it is projected onto an array of pixelated photodetectors for imaging. By carefully reconstructing the emission angle and speed of this light from convoluted images, scientists can determine the particleâs identity.
This technology will be crucial in particle accelerator experiments like the EIC, where millions of particles are produced in every collision, creating a complex mix of electrons, protons, pions, kaons, and other subatomic particles. Identifying these particles accurately is essential for understanding the underlying physics. The beauty of DIRC technology lies in its compactness and ability to function within the magnetic fields typically found in such experiments. Its thin, space-saving design makes it an ideal solution for the the barrel section of detectors, where space is limited. This is in contrast to RICH (Ring Imaging Cherenkov) detectors, which use gaseous or liquid radiators and require far more space to perform particle identification.
However, DIRC detectors face a formidable challenge: they must register and reconstruct data from only a small amount of single photons of light, emitted by the particles. This light is not only faint but must be imaged and captured with extreme precision to ensure the correct particle is identified. Improving this process has been a central goal for Dr Kalicy and his team as they work to develop the hpDIRC detector.
The high-performance DIRC: A step forward
The high-performance DIRC (hpDIRC) represents a dramatic leap from the original BaBar DIRC detector, building on 13 years of research and development. The project began with a bold question: Could a DIRC detector be developed that would double the performance of the state-of-the-art technology at the time? This ambitious goal required a complete rethinking of several components, including the optical system, sensors, and electronics.
Key components of the hpDIRC detector with an incorporated schematic of the DIRC principle Dr Kalicy and Dr Jochan Schwiening from GSI have been instrumental in leading the hpDIRCâs development across multiple institutions, introducing crucial innovations that have significantly advanced the technology. One of the most significant breakthroughs has been the development of a unique three-layer lens system, designed to focus the Cherenkov light with unprecedented accuracy. This innovation came out of early collaboration with the PANDA Barrel DIRC group, where the need for an advanced lens system became apparent. The challenge was to prevent photon loss while focusing with high precision the light travelling through the quartz bars â a notoriously difficult task given that the standard lenses required air gaps,
which would result in dramatic light loss. The solution came in the form of a three-layer lens, which uses high-refractive-index materials such as crown glass or sapphire, sandwiched between two layers of quartz. This design eliminates photon loss while significantly improving focusing accuracy. Sapphire, in particular, has emerged as the leading candidate for the middle layer due to its radiation hardness and transparency to low-wavelength light, making it ideal for the high-radiation environments of particle accelerators.
Achieving unprecedented precision
In particle experiments, timing is everything. To give you an idea of the level of precision involved, the readout chain of the hpDIRC detector needs to be faster than 100 picoseconds (ps). Imagine timing a runner in a race. Now, imagine timing that runner so precisely that you are measuring intervals a billion times shorter than a single blink of an eye. Thatâs the kind of accuracy needed to distinguish particles in an EIC experiment. Such precision allows the hpDIRC to âseeâ particles with incredible clarity, enabling scientists to separate particles that otherwise look very similar. This is particularly important in the EIC, where distinguishing between particles like kaons and pions â both of which play key roles in understanding the strong nuclear force â can unlock new insights into the fundamental structure of matter.
The process of designing and validating hpDIRC components has been extensive, requiring years of simulations, prototyping, and testing. Dr Roman Dzhygadlo, another GSI scientist, has brought his expertise in software development to the table. Dr Dzhygadlo has performed what can only be described as âmagicâ with the array of software tools he has developed and adapted for various DIRC detectors, including the hpDIRC. His software enables precise simulations, crucial for optimising the design and performance of the detector. Dr Kalicy has overseen the construction of specialised testing setups, such as a laser-based system that immerses the lens in mineral oil to simulate its environment inside the detector. These tests have confirmed the extraordinary performance of the lens system, ensuring that it meets the stringent requirements for the EIC.
The following step involved validating the hpDIRCâs performance in real-world conditions. Test beam campaigns, conducted in collaboration with the PANDA Barrel DIRC group, have demonstrated that the hpDIRC can achieve the performance levels predicted by simulation. These tests provided the confidence needed to move the project into its final phase: being accepted as one of the technologies for the ePIC detector and building a full system prototype.
Dr. Kalicy measuring DIRC radiator bar in the laser lab at Jefferson Lab Preparing for full-scale construction
Currently, the team is focused on two major hardware projects before the hpDIRC is ready for full-scale construction. The first is the development of a full system prototype, which will allow scientists to test a complete slice of the detector in conditions that closely mimic those of the EIC. Given the limited access to particle beams for testing, the hpDIRC team, led by Dr Jaydeep Datta and Nathan Shankman from Stony Brook University, developed a âCosmic Ray Telescope.â This setup utilises naturally occurring cosmic muons to simulate the conditions the detector will experience in the accelerator.
The second priority project, led by Dr Kalicy and Andrew Lumanog from Jefferson Lab, involves the reuse of legacy quartz bars from the BaBar DIRC detector. If successful, this effort could save $15m for the EIC.
EIC ePIC Detector design These bars, stored in bar boxes at SLAC since 2010, were recently moved to JLab where they will be carefully disassembled and tested to ensure they meet the unprecedented optical quality standards required for the hpDIRC. A custom-built, six-metre-long CNC machine has been constructed
to open the aluminum cases containing the bars and separate the glued segments. Once the bars are extracted, they will be cleaned and measured with nanometre precision for quality in a specialised laser lab built for this purpose at Jefferson Lab. A sheet of paper is approximately 100,000nm thick, while the hpDIRC bars must be smooth to an accuracy of 0.5nm, which is roughly the space needed to fit four hydrogen atoms.
Looking ahead: The future of DIRC technology
With the hpDIRC in its final stages of development, Dr Kalicy and the rest of the hpDIRC team are already looking to the future. The next phase of innovation is the development of the eXtreme-performance DIRCÂ (xpDIRC), which aims to push the limits of particle identification even further. Combining novel geometries with next-generation components, the xpDIRC aims to provide even better performance, ensuring that future particle accelerators are equipped with the most advanced technology available.
DIRC technologyâs evolution from the BaBar experiment to the hpDIRC is a testament to the power of innovation in particle physics. The development of the hpDIRC has not only advanced the state of the art but also opened the door to new possibilities in particle identification, paving the way for the next generation of scientific discovery at the Electron-Ion Collider and beyond.
Please note, this article will also appear in the 20th edition of our quarterly publication.
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ATLAS collaboration probe Higgs bosons for new physics
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The elusive Higgs boson particle, discovered at CERNâs Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in 2012, has become a cornerstone for understanding particle physics and the Standard Model.
However, scientists are still grappling with one major question: could interactions between Higgs bosons unlock insights into new physics?
Recent experiments from CERNâs ATLAS collaboration are delving deeper into this possibility, combining precision measurements of Higgs boson properties with the ongoing search for clues of unknown physics beyond the Standard Model.
Standard Model exploration and the search for new physics
The LHC is renowned for its success in confirming the Standard Model, a framework that describes fundamental particles and their interactions.
The Higgs boson, identified as the particle that gives mass to other particles, was the last missing piece of this puzzle.
Yet despite its profound impact, scientists are also left with frustration: despite extensive exploration, no direct evidence has emerged pointing to physics beyond the Standard Model.
Researchers at CERN are now innovating their approaches, using highly advanced techniques to probe whether Higgs bosons could be gateways to yet-undiscovered phenomena.
The ATLAS experiment, one of the main experiments conducted at the LHC, has recently focused on studying how Higgs bosons might interact with one another.
This latest study zeroes in on events that could produce Higgs boson pairs, which might then decay into particles like electrons and muons from the lepton family.
Why Higgs boson pair production is key to new physics
Under the Standard Model, pairs of Higgs bosons can indeed be produced, though these events are incredibly rare.
So rare, in fact, that no such events have been observed in the data collected so far. However, some theoretical models extending beyond the Standard Model suggest that Higgs boson pairs could be produced at a higher rate than anticipated.
If scientists detect these interactions using existing data, it could be a breakthrough, hinting at the existence of physics phenomena we have yet to understand.
In the study, ATLAS researchers conducted simulations to model potential signals of Higgs boson pair events.
They then compared these models to existing data from their detectors, using advanced machine learning techniques, including decision trees, to identify possible signals among vast amounts of background noise.
Although no definitive new signals were identified, the work sets the stage for future research, showing the potential of enhanced detection methods.
Overcoming the challenges of detecting Higgs boson interactions
One of the biggest challenges in studying Higgs boson pairs is their rarity. Higgs bosons appear only fleetingly during proton collisions at the LHC, and producing two of them in a single collision is an even rarer event.
This scarcity means that even powerful detectors like ATLAS have yet to observe these pairs. To address this, scientists rely on increasingly sophisticated simulations to predict what these interactions might look like within the Standard Model.
The ATLAS teamâs recent analysis applied statistical normalisation techniques to compare simulated signals with expected data patterns, searching for discrepancies that could signal unknown physical processes.
Although no deviations were detected, the work adds valuable constraints to the possibilities of ânew physics.â It signals that while any effects of new physics on Higgs boson interactions are currently undetectable, future upgrades at the LHC could provide the sensitivity needed to probe this frontier.
What the future holds
With major upgrades to the LHC slated for the coming years, the collider will soon achieve tenfold increases in beam intensity.
This increase will allow for a far greater number of recorded proton collisions, dramatically improving the potential to detect rare events like Higgs boson pair production.
These forthcoming improvements make scientists hopeful that the next generation of experiments will provide a clearer picture of Higgs boson interactions and possibly unveil signs of physics beyond the Standard Model.
This recent ATLAS experiment study adds an important layer to Higgs boson research, even as it underscores how elusive evidence for new physics remains.
By refining the current limitations on Higgs boson production parameters, scientists can pursue more targeted investigations, and perhaps within the next decade, they will capture the first direct observations of Higgs boson pairs.
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New CERN chief pledges to forge ahead with $17-billion supercollider
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Mark Thomson will take the helm at CERN at the end of next year. Credit: Fabrice Coffrini/AFP via Getty
British particle physicist Mark Thomson has been named as the next leader of CERN, the European particle-physics laboratory outside Geneva, Switzerland.
As CERNâs director general, Thomson will face major challenges, including an uncertain political landscape amidst the war in Ukraine, which has led the lab to break government-level ties with Russia. He will also have to repair a faltering consensus around the Future Circular Collider (FCC), a new 90-kilometre tunnel to host the labâs flagship experiments throughout the rest of the century. The German government, CERNâs largest contributor, expressed scepticism about the project earlier this year, and China could beat CERN to the punch with a similar project.
CERNâs $17-billion supercollider in question as top funder criticizes cost
Thomson is no stranger CERN: he worked at a major experiment there in the 1990s, and helped to discover the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) â the worldâs most powerful particle accelerator â in 2012, together with the current director general Fabiola Gianotti. He is currently chair of the Science and Technology Facilities Council, a UK funding agency, and is a representative on the CERN Council, the board that oversees the laboratory on behalf of its member countries. He will take up the director general post at the end of 2025, when Gianottiâs second consecutive five-year term is due to end.
In a press conference on 7 November, both Gianotti and Thomson stressed the need for continuity, and the importance of the ongoing âŹ1.5 billion upgrade to the 27-kilometre LHC. Thomson also reiterated Gianottiâs commitment to build the FCC. âI am very much aligned with the vision of the current DG,â he told reporters.
Former CERN council president Ursula Bassler is optimistic about Thomsonâs appointment. âHe is a person who values what the FCC can bring to CERN, but who is also aware of the reservations some people might have,â says Bassler, who is a particle physicist and scientific director at French National Institute of Nuclear and Particle Physics in Paris. âI think he will really act in a quite transparent way to come to a decision.â
Thomson will be the first UK physicist to lead the organization since the 1990s. As well as having worked at the LHC, he has been a co-leader and spokesperson of the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment under construction in Illinois and South Dakota.
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Celebrating 50 years of the largest cyclotron at TRIUMF
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TRIUMF reflects on five decades of discovery since the worldâs largest cyclotron was activated at the centre.
This year, Canadaâs particle accelerator centre, TRIUMF, is celebrating an anniversary like no other: 50 years since the first beam from the laboratoryâs 520 MeV cyclotron.
In 2024, the laboratoryâs community will look back to the momentous afternoon of 15 December 1974, when a small team of physicists, engineers, and critical support staff activated the worldâs-largest cyclotron, a type of particle accelerator, and coaxed forth Canadaâs first high-energy proton beam.
Across the last five decades, TRIUMFâs cyclotron, the beams it produces, and the dedicated community that has stewarded many myriad contributions and successes have made an indelible mark on both the national landscape of Canadian science and the international ecosystem of âBig Scienceâ, in which TRIUMF is now a major player.
History in the making
Nestled between forest and sea on a 13-acre campus on the western edge of Vancouver, British Columbia, TRIUMF has remained at the leading edge of world-class research for 50 years, continuously adapting to the needs and new paradigms of subatomic physics.
The laboratory has reinvented itself at several key junctures over its 50-year history, transforming from a âTRi-University Meson Facilityâ into a leading national and international scientific hub with over 20 member universities from coast to coast.
The TRIUMF cyclotron âgroup photo,â 1972 The original 520âMeV cyclotron, which continues to drive a sizable portion of the TRIUMF research programme, is an 18-metre, 4400-tonne, negative-hydrogen-ion accelerator. The laboratoryâs community of world-renowned accelerator science experts has implemented a variety of modern controls and upgrades to keep the machine running at maximum capacity and fuelling programmes in particle and nuclear physics, life sciences, materials sciences, and more. TRIUMFâs infrastructure has grown to accommodate these many experimental, user-focused capabilities, and industry collaborations, and the 520 MeV cyclotron has also been joined by a suite of additional accelerators, including compact medical isotope cyclotrons and linear accelerators.
TRIUMFâs inception can be traced back to the early 1960s, driven by a strong desire for collaboration among three Canadian universities and a novel accelerator concept: the worldâs largest cyclotron, to be used primarily for experiments in particle physics. In June 1965, a meeting among representatives from the University of British Columbia, the University of Victoria, and Simon Fraser University solidified a proposal for a tri-university meson facility based on an existing, smaller, cyclotron design. Within three years, the group had secured C$19m in federal funding, and construction began in 1968.
The construction of the cyclotron involved a highly diverse team of contributors, from scientists and engineers to technicians, administrators, students, and others, many of whom were recent graduates or early-career professionals. The organisation combined university faculty directing engineers and consultants responsible for key components of the cyclotron, such as its ion source and vacuum, radiofrequency, and magnet systems.
After overcoming initial challenges, the first beam from the cyclotron was achieved on 15 December 1974, marking the beginning of a comprehensive experimental physics programme that utilised beams of enigmatic subatomic particles: proton, neutron, and muons.
Gary Wait from TRIUMF said: âEvery one of the group leaders were in the control room for hours keeping our systems under surveillance as (TRIUMFâs Director Reg Richardson) gradually got the beam circulating to higher and higher energies. He finally got a radiation alarm from the beamline 4 beamspill monitors followed by a signal moments later. The room exploded in cheers. Exciting day!â
TRIUMFâs scientific programme quickly expanded, leveraging the cyclotronâs capabilities to enable exploration in a variety of research areas, including nucleon interactions and materials science. Researchers at the lab used beams of protons from the main cyclotron for research into nucleonânucleon and nucleus interactions, as well as secondary beams of pions for nuclear-structure studies and muons as probes for studies in materials science. Taken together, the 520 MeV cyclotron enabled a highly unique and comprehensive scope of research into the atomic nucleus, expanding our understanding of the forces that hold the atomic nucleus together and building critical understanding of the properties of matter. By the early 1980s, TRIUMF was operating the worldâs largest cyclotron and had established itself as a premier accelerator laboratory.
New and exciting avenues of research also blossomed, including investigations into the feasibility of producing critically needed medical isotopes using the main TRIUMF accelerator. By the 1980s, TRIUMF had established a shared research programme with the UBC Hospital, providing short-lived radioactive isotopes for use in the burgeoning fields of positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). The laboratory began to add facilities to support this new area of opportunity, installing additional compact cyclotrons to produce not only the isotopes required for PET/SPECT scans but also novel, experimental isotopes that could serve as important tools for diagnosing and potentially treating disease.
The winds of change
However, new discoveries in subatomic science and a deeper understanding of the Standard Model of Particle Physics began to change the landscape of international physics. Being a relatively nimble lab and accustomed to doing much with little, TRIUMF sought to propose an even larger facility to respond to these winds of change, one that could be added as an expansion to the current site in Vancouver: a massive, unprecedented 30âGeV âKAONâ complex to facilitate high-energy physics experiments. The new accelerator facility was envisioned to produce a high volume and variety of particles for use in physics research, including âKaons, Antiprotons, Other hadrons, and Neutrinosâ. KAON would not necessarily compete with the high-energy frontier being pursued by colleagues at CERN but could provide an even broader scope of research capability at medium and low energies.
While the KAON proposal generated substantial interest from both the provincial government, local labour organisers, and international âBig Scienceâ collaborators at many of the worldâs physics labs, it ultimately did not receive the necessary political support for funding and was deemed unable to move forward.
The unsuccessful bid for the KAON complex prompted TRIUMF to pivot in two key directions: enhancing Canadaâs role in international physics collaborations and developing a new focus on rare isotopes.
TRIUMFâs contributions to international collaborations had become increasingly evident during the decade-long KAON design campaign, where the lab developed significant expertise in accelerator design, the production of targets and associated systems, detectors, and more. This positioned TRIUMF as Canadaâs gateway to major international physics initiatives, such as CERNâs Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the ATLAS collaboration, where Canadian researchers today continue to contribute vital components to accelerators, detectors, computing infrastructure and modelling, and more.
A schematic of rare isotope beamlines Simultaneously, TRIUMF recognised a growing global interest in rare isotopes, which opened new avenues for research in nuclear astrophysics and fundamental nuclear physics. The lab had identified a worldwide shortage of isotope production facilities and understood its potential role in addressing this issue. Starting with the small TISOL (Test facility of Isotope Separation On-Line) infrastructure, which had been successfully installed in 1987, TRIUMF began producing a different kind of beam: rare isotope beams, comprised of exotic, short-lived versions of the stable elements that make up the world around us.
The process to create rare isotope beams is intensive, and requires massively complex, highly tuned, and thoughtfully radiation-shielded accelerator and target infrastructure. TRIUMF had developed much of the requisite expertise across its multi-decade journey and was eager to use its infrastructure and community of world-leading experts to pivot in this new and exciting direction.
The initial ISOL project led to the development of the Isotope Separator and Accelerator (ISAC), which has since become a leading facility for rare-isotope production. ISAC enables TRIUMF to produce isotopes for various research fields, including studies of heavy element formation in the Universe, investigations into the magnetic and conductive properties of materials like superconductors and next-gen batteries, and exploring symmetries and phenomena beyond the Standard Model of particle physics. Spin-polarized beta-emitting isotopes produced at TRIUMF also support materials science investigations, benefiting research into complex quantum materials.
Building on the expertise gained as part of its accelerator research, design, and construction, TRIUMF has continued to expand its capabilities in isotope science by adding new production facilities that will allow for the production of even more rare isotope beams. Foremost is the Advanced Rare Isotope Laboratory (ARIEL) â a multidisciplinary flagship research facility that brings online a superconducting electron linear accelerator and two additional target stations to produce isotopes. With its proton and electron beamlines, ARIEL is set to triple the output of TRIUMFâs rare isotope science programme and explore innovative applications beyond subatomic physics.
TRIUMFâs history is marked not only by a commitment to scientific advancement but also by a drive for innovation. TRIUMF Innovations, the labâs commercialisation arm, actively translates research into real-world applications, and has a storied history of successful company creation, technology licensing, and other initiatives that drive impact from TRIUMFâs science. The laboratoryâs longstanding commercial partnerships to produce medical isotopes (now with partner BWXT Medical) exemplify this effort: together with BWXT Medical, TRIUMF enables the production of nearly two million patient doses of critically needed medical isotopes used in diagnosing cancer and cardiac conditions for patients around the world. The laboratoryâs deep breadth of expertise in accelerator science, built over five decades since first beam, remains a cornerstone in these successful partnerships.
The Advanced Rare Isotope Laboratory (ARIEL) Looking ahead, TRIUMF Innovations will play a key role in advancing the Institute for Advanced Medical Isotopes (IAMI), which brings online an additional compact cyclotron for producing medical isotopes that support new diagnostics and radiotherapies. Additionally, TRIUMF continues to build capacity to produce alpha-emitting therapeutics, scarcely available but crucial isotopes that show tremendous promise for treating advanced cancers. The laboratoryâs growing capacity for producing actinium-225 will enable even more clinical trials, accelerating the development of promising new therapies and improving health outcomes for Canadians and people around the world.
Looking ahead to the next 50 years of beam and beyond, TRIUMF will continue to adapt to the needs of society and the physics community by continuing to improve its facilities, expand its world-leading accelerator science community, and tackle new scientific challenges. With a legacy built on exploration and discovery, and a proven track record of success, TRIUMF will continue to drive impact and benefit for all for decades to come.
Please note, this article will also appear in the 20th edition of our quarterly publication.
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Mysterious form of high-energy radiation spotted in thunderstorms
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Physicists have discovered a new form of Îł-ray radiation that emerges from tropical thunderstorms â and shown that such invisible bursts of energy are more common on Earth than previously thought. The phenomenon is described1,2 in two studies published in Nature on 2 October.
âThese papers are game-changers for the field,â says Joseph Dwyer, a physicist at the University of New Hampshire in Durham. The findings added a new animal to the âzooâ of high-energy phenomena seen in storms, he adds. âThese two papers are very important and will make a big splash in the thunderstorm and lightning community.â
Mystery gamma rays could help solve age-old lightning puzzle
More energetic than X-rays, Îł-radiation is found around black holes, and other extreme cosmic environments. It is also seen on Earth, and its origins could help to explain what initiates lightning, which often follows these events. The trigger for lightning has remained a mystery for centuries because observations struggle to find electric fields strong enough to initiate it.
Cold war plane
A group led by scientists at the University of Bergen in Norway made the discoveries using instruments on a high-altitude ex-cold-war spy plane, converted by NASA. The single-pilot aircraft flew as close as 1.5 kilometres above storms in the Caribbean and Central America, during ten flights in 2023.
Scientists had previously documented two kinds of Îł-ray phenomenon in storms â seconds-long glows and higher-intensity bursts known as terrestrial Îł-ray flashes (TGFs), which last just millionths of a second. The mechanisms behind either are not well understood, nor is their relationship.
Illustration of an aircraft flying above thunderclouds to monitor gamma-ray glows, coloured in purple.Credit: The ALOFT team/Mount Visual (CC BY 4.0)
Detectors aboard the plane spotted both types of radiation appearing in the same storm. They saw around 500 glows and 130 TGFs â many more than they had anticipated. And the glows were not as expected. Rather than a steady hum, the radiation surged up and down in intensity, bubbling across a region around 100 kilometres wide, like a boiling pot of water.
Both kinds of radiation have rarely been observed before. âWe saw that, over these tropical storms, they are really very common,â says Martino Marisaldi, a co-author and high-energy atmospheric physicist at the University of Bergen.
But the team also saw 24 instances of a new kind of Îł-ray radiation: a flickering flash. These pulses grew out of glows and lasted as long as 250 milliseconds, with traits in between that of the other two types of radiation. During each flash, radiation spiked around a dozen times over around one-tenth of a second.
Electron soup
This newly observed radiation could be key to understanding how Îł-rays come about on Earth. Scientists have known since the 1980s that storms can emit Îł-rays. It happens when electric fields of around 100 million volts develop inside churning clouds, creating a natural particle accelerator. When cascades of electrons, zooming at close to light speed, collide with air molecules, they release Îł-ray radiation. But where so many of these electrons come from remains uncertain.
Space-station cameras reveal how thunderstorms trigger gamma-ray bursts
Dwyer says that the latest data fit with a model that he introduced in 2003, in which high-energy radiation sometimes creates positrons, the antimatter counterparts to electrons. These would zoom in the opposite direction to electrons, in a cycle that creates fresh particle avalanches, which might explain the quantity of Îł-rays and the flicker, says Dwyer.
Thatâs an âattractive possibilityâ worth exploring, says Teruaki Enoto, an astrophysicist studying extreme natural phenomena at the RIKEN Hakubi laboratory in Saitama, Japan.
Lightning strikes happened after most glows and flickering flashes, and at the same time as TGFs. Models suggest that the electron avalanche could partially discharge the cloud, causing the field to grow elsewhere and initiate lightning, adds Dwyer.
The exciting findings will accelerate future observations of these events, says Enoto. âKudos to the team,â he says.
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Quantum entanglement observed at LHC in historic breakthrough
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In a groundbreaking discovery, scientists have observed quantum entanglement at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) for the first time, marking a significant leap in the field of quantum physics.
This remarkable phenomenon, where two particles become so interconnected that the state of one affects the other, regardless of distance, has been pivotal in advancing quantum information science.
Now, quantum entanglement has reached new heights as researchers observed this effect in top quarks, some of the heaviest particles known to physics, at the highest energies ever recorded.
Understanding quantum entanglement
Quantum entanglement is a key concept in quantum mechanics, a theory that governs the behaviour of particles at the atomic and subatomic levels.
When two particles become entangled, their properties are intertwined in such a way that measuring one particle instantly influences the state of the other, no matter how far apart they are.
This baffling phenomenon defies classical physics, which is limited by the speed of light and distance. Albert Einstein famously referred to this as âspooky action at a distance.â
Historically, quantum entanglement has been observed in various systems, such as photons and atoms, and has revolutionised applications in quantum cryptography and quantum computing.
In 2022, three physicistsâAlain Aspect, John Clauser, and Anton Zeilingerâwere awarded the Nobel Prize for their experiments with entangled photons, validating predictions made decades earlier by CERN theorist John Bell.
A new frontier at the Large Hadron Collider
Despite its significance in quantum mechanics, quantum entanglement has remained unexplored at the extreme energy levels generated by particle colliders like the LHC.
This changed in 2023 when the ATLAS collaboration reported the first-ever observation of quantum entanglement between top quarks.
These findings were soon confirmed by two additional observations from the CMS collaboration, opening up new avenues of exploration in quantum physics.
âWhile particle physics is deeply rooted in quantum mechanics, the observation of quantum entanglement in a new particle system and at much higher energy than previously possible is remarkable,â said ATLAS spokesperson Andreas Hoecker. âIt paves the way for new investigations into this fascinating phenomenon.â
Observing quantum entanglement in top quarks
Top quarks, the heaviest known fundamental particles, provide a unique system for studying quantum entanglement.
Typically, top quarks decay so quickly that they donât combine with other quarks. Instead, their quantum properties, such as spin, are transferred to their decay products, allowing physicists to infer the orientation of the original top quarks.
To study this phenomenon, the ATLAS and CMS teams analysed data from proton-proton collisions at an energy of 13 teraelectronvolts collected during the second LHC run between 2015 and 2018.
They focused on pairs of top quarks produced with low relative momentum, as their spins are expected to be strongly entangled in such scenarios.
The teams measured the angular separation between the decay products of the top quarks, which served as an indicator of the degree of spin entanglement.
By correcting for potential experimental biases, they confirmed the presence of entanglement with a statistical significance exceeding five standard deviationsâa level of certainty that denotes a discovery in physics.
Expanding the scope of quantum physics
The CMS collaboration took their study a step further by examining top quark pairs produced with high momentum.
In these cases, the conditions ruled out any classical exchange of information, as the decays occurred too far apart in space and time for such interactions. Yet, the CMS team still observed spin entanglement, proving that quantum mechanics holds even in these extreme environments.
âWith measurements of entanglement and other quantum concepts in a new particle system and at an energy range beyond what was previously accessible, we can test the Standard Model of particle physics in new ways and look for signs of new physics that may lie beyond it,â noted CMS spokesperson Patricia McBride.
This discovery marks a pivotal moment in the study of quantum physics. Observing quantum entanglement at such high energies expands our understanding of the quantum world and opens new pathways for research.
These results could eventually lead to breakthroughs in quantum computing and other advanced technologies, as well as provide deeper insights into the Standard Model of particle physics, potentially revealing physics beyond our current comprehension.
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Why the words we use in physics obscure the true nature of reality
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Growing up in the US during the oil embargo of the early 1970s, I was bombarded by public service announcements encouraging people to conserve energy. But at a very young age, I also read that âenergy is always conservedâ, according to physics. This baffled me. If nature automatically conserves energy, why would human efforts to do so be needed?
I soon realised that physicists donât exactly speak English. They employ a dialect full of familiar-sounding terms with unfamiliar meanings (including âconserveâ and âenergyâ). Worse still, many words, including simple ones like âforceâ and âmassâ, donât even signify what physicists originally intended. Consequently, the language we use to talk about physics obscures some of our most beautiful and fascinating discoveries about how the universe works.
Some scientists might shrug and say it is neither surprising nor problematic that the words arenât completely clear. After all, the foundations of physics are experiment and mathematics. Those are what matter; words are inevitably mere shadows.
Though I agree that data and equations are paramount, physicists convey their ideas, both to each other and to non-scientists, using language. When their wording is ambiguous or opaque, essential lessons about the cosmos may be misunderstood.
So letâs look closer at the language of physics, and how three seemingly simple words have morphed over time, becoming snares for the unwary. Such deceptive terms and metaphors are widespread in physicistsâ dialect. In pausing to contemplate them,âŚ
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UK celebrates 70 years of particle physics research at CERN
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The new UK government and leading figures from the particle physics community are backing Professor Mark Thomsonâs vision for the future of CERN as the global science community marks the institutionâs 70th anniversary over the coming weeks.
CERN is the worldâs foremost centre for particle physics research and has made an unrivalled contribution to our understanding of the Universe.
The UK is one of the 12 founding members of CERN and is its second-largest financial backer.
The UK has been a critical contributor to all major experiments and discoveries at CERN, including the landmark discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012.
Major scientific breakthroughs made at CERN
Breakthroughs made at CERN have quite literally changed the world.
It was the birthplace of the World Wide Web, and advances in particle physics research developed there have opened up new ways of treating cancer.
CERN is proof that backing curiosity-driven science leads to innovations that deliver new jobs, new businesses, and ultimately, economic growth and a better quality of life for everyone.
Appointment of a new Director-General
CERNâs anniversary comes at a critical time for its future. This autumn, a new Director-General will be selected following a vote among the organisationâs member states.
Renowned Cambridge University particle physicist Professor Mark Thomson is the UKâs candidate for the role, running on a platform to develop a strategic plan for CERNâs upcoming major investment decisions, strengthen links with all of CERNâs member states, and build an inclusive culture for CERN staff.
Professor Thomson said: âItâs inspiring to reflect on the seventy years of particle physics research CERN has delivered, advancing our understanding of the Universe at its most fundamental level.
âI wish to ensure that CERNâs profound contributions to our understanding of the Universe continue.
âTo succeed, we must bring the whole CERN family together with a clear vision for an even brighter future. I have the scientific credentials, experience, and vision to lead CERN and deliver for its scientific community, its brilliant staff, and each one of its member states.â
The future of particle physics research
CERN faces decisions in the coming years that will profoundly shape its future, including the delivery of a major upgrade to the Large Hadron Collider.
If elected, Professor Thomson would develop an ambitious strategic plan for how CERN develops and makes major investment decisions over the next five years, strengthen links with all of CERNâs member states, and build an inclusive and supportive culture for CERN staff.
UK Science and Technology Secretary Peter Kyle concluded: âWhen we work together, we can aim higher and go further, and nowhere is that truer than at CERN.
âI am proud of the role the UK has played in CERN, going back to its foundation 70 years ago. It has brought some of Europeâs and the worldâs greatest minds together at the absolute cutting edge of particle physics research.â
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Quarks show that quantum entanglement holds at high energies
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Nature, Published online: 18 September 2024; doi:10.1038/d41586-024-02801-y
By smashing protons together at blinding speeds, scientists have shown that pairs of quarks display the phenomenon of quantum entanglement. The result could lead to fresh insight about one of the forces holding nuclei together.
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