Tag: culture

  • Time’s restless ocean

    Time’s restless ocean

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    “I’ve brought your tea, professor.” Albert shouldered open the door to the old man’s study and set the tray on a few sheets of paper, the only corner of the old man’s desk not buried beneath books.

    “Not there, Albert. I need those papers.”

    “Sorry, sir.” Albert didn’t move the tray, but instead placed a tea strainer above a cup embellished with rosebuds, surreptitiously dropped a little white pill into it, and poured the tea. The pill dissolved instantly.

    “Not now.” The professor waved him away.

    “I must insist, sir. You’ve taken neither food nor drink since noon.”

    “What time is it?”

    “After seven, sir.”

    “Light the lamps if you will.”

    The steady light from the gas lamps on the wall behind the professor’s desk already lit the room with barely a flicker. It was the old man’s sight growing dim. He was close to the end. Albert fervently hoped the old man wouldn’t try to demonstrate his work before death took him naturally. If he did then Albert’s mission was clear. He must protect the timeline.

    “Take your tea, sir, it will make you feel better.” The pill would ensure it did — a painkiller better than anything available in this benighted century.

    “My life’s work is complete, Albert.”

    “Then it will wait while you take refreshment.”

    “The Royal Society can’t deny the mathematical proof.” The professor sat back, grunted, and put one hand to his belly.

    Albert removed the strainer and offered the cup. “Just the way you like it, sir.”

    The professor sighed and ran one hand across his sparse grey hair. “You know me too well.”

    “I should think so, sir, after 43 years.”

    “Do you think they will be able to cure cancer in the future?” The professor’s hand twitched towards his belly again.

    “Man was never meant to be immortal, sir.”

    “True enough.”

    The professor reached for his teacup, breathed in the steam, and took a sip.

    He stared at nothing for a full minute, then looked up and said, “It’s time.”

    “Time, sir, for what?”

    “Time, man, time. It’s not real. Time is a construct of our imagination. We think of time as linear. It ticks past, second by second, flowing like a river, but what of that river when it gets to the sea?”

    “Sir?”

    The professor swirled his cup and stared at the liquid within. “Time is not a river, Albert, it’s a vast ocean. Its currents churn and eddy.” He sighed and drained his cup. “And, finally, when time is running out for me, I have the answer. We can pitch ourselves from 1892 into the vast sea of time and emerge where we will. Past or future.”

    “You’re sure, sir?”

    “I am, and now I’m ready to prove it. My calculations —”

    “These calculations, sir?” Albert lifted the tray to reveal papers covered in neat equations.

    “Yes, those, just so. I’ve arranged a meeting with Hopkins tomorrow, to reveal everything. I thought time was going to beat me, Albert, but I’ve beaten it.”

    Albert slid the tray to one side, sending two books crashing to the floor. He scooped up the papers and glanced at them briefly. “Close enough, sir, close enough.” Then he ripped them in half, stalked to the fireplace and flung them into the flames.

    “Albert! What are you doing?”

    The old man stood, shaking, but it was too late. His life’s work was already curling up the chimney to be dispersed as smoke on the wind.

    Speechless, he flopped back down into his chair, his eyes wide, staring at the man who’d looked after him for more than four decades, his gentleman’s gentleman, trusted servant, companion and, even, friend.

    “As you say, sir, it’s time. And now I can go home.”

    “Home?” It was the only word the old man caught on to.

    “Home, sir, back to 2246.”

    “Twenty-two —”

    “Your work is impeccable, sir, but it’s too soon. The world isn’t ready.”

    “But —”

    “Imagine someone using it to travel back and strangle Bonaparte in his cradle.”

    “Would that be so bad?”

    “It depends on who rises to power in his stead.”

    “So —”

    “So, you will never meet with Hopkins. The Royal Society must remain in ignorance, but you, sir, will never be forgotten. You will be known as the father of time travel, though not in this century, or the next, or even the one after that.”

    “I don’t understand. Forty-three years, Albert, and now I feel as though I’ve never known you.”

    “I was sent to watch over you and your work, but under no circumstances was I to allow you to reveal your findings to this century.”

    “Then you needs must kill me, for I will not be silenced.”

    “Those were indeed my orders, but I am relieved that nature is doing it for me.”

    “I’m not finished yet. I have my notes.”

    “No, sir, I have your notes.”

    The professor tried to stand again, but his knees would not support him.

    Albert crossed to the wall lights, turned off the gas, let the flames die and the gas mantles cool, then he opened up the gas taps again to a soft hiss. The gas smelled sulfurous as it seeped into the room. In the flickering firelight, he placed one hand on the professor’s shoulder.

    “You have a choice, sir. History says you died in a gas explosion, but will you come with me instead? I owe you at least that.”

    “To where?”

    “To the future.”

    “Why should I trust you?”

    “Trust your own mathematics.”

    Albert reached into his pocket and activated the device. As the first tendrils of gas seeped towards the fire’s flames, Albert and the professor faded out.

    The story behind the story

    Jacey Bedford reveals the inspiration behind Time’s restless ocean.

    Before lockdown, in that dim, dark, distant past when we didn’t think twice about hopping on a train and heading for this nation’s crowded, germ-laden capital, I attended Science for Fiction Writers run by Dr David Clements at Imperial College, London. It was an annual event that brought in top scientists to talk to science-fiction and fantasy writers. Once of our guest lecturers was Dr Fay Dowker. (You can catch some of her public lectures on YouTube, and very fine they are, too.) Dr Dowker began her lecture with, ‘There’s no such thing as time.’ I found it difficult to get my head around the concept, so it festered in my brain for a few years, through lockdown and beyond.

    Of course, we’ve known about time being wibbly-wobbly and timey-wimey ever since the Doctor Who episode ‘Blink’ was broadcast in 2007. So the non-existence of the wibbly-wobbly timey-wimey stuff coalesced in my brain, and eventually came out in story form as Time’s restless ocean.

    It took a few years, Dr Dowker, but I got there in the end. Thanks for the lecture.

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  • how a notorious pest conquered the world

    how a notorious pest conquered the world

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    A pregnant female German cockroach rests on wooden surface scattered with bread crumbs.

    The German cockroach (Blattella germanica) is found all over the globe — but its origins have been mysterious.Credit: Martin Dohrn/Science Photo Library

    A ubiquitous household pest has unexpected origins. A cockroach that lives in human dwellings all over the world is known as the German cockroach — but it did not come from Germany originally. A study published today1 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences suggests that the creature originated South Asia and spread globally because of its affinity for human habitats.

    Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus was the first scientist to describe the cockroach — which he named Blattella germanica — in 1776 in Europe, hence the assumption about its German origins. “They did not originate from there, but they were domesticated there and then started to spread across the world,” says study co-author Qian Tang, an evolutionary biologist now at Harvard University in Boston, Massachusetts.

    Tang and his colleagues analysed the genomes of 281 German cockroaches collected from 17 countries, including Australia, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Ukraine and the United States. They used the similarities and differences between the genomes to calculate when and where different populations might have been established.

    They found that closest living relative of the German cockroach is probably the Asian cockroach Blattella asahinai, which is still found in South Asia. Blattella germanica probably split off from it around 2,100 years ago.

    A Blatella asahinai cockroach carrying eggs rests on a green leaf.

    The Asian cockroach (Blattella asahinai) is the closest living relative of the German cockroach.Credit: Apurv Jadhav/ephotocorp via Alamy

    Then, around 1,200 years ago, B. germanica hitchhiked west into the Middle East with the commercial and military traffic of the Islamic Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates. It began to spread east from South Asia around 390 years ago, with the rise of European colonialism and the emergence of international trading companies such as the Dutch and British East India Companies. Around a century later, the German cockroach hitched a ride into Europe, and from there spread around the world.

    Cleo Bertelsmeier, a researcher of invasive species at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland, says it was exciting to see how the study was able to map the genetic data to historical events. The use of genomics was essential to understanding the dispersal of the German cockroach, because “this is already quite an ancient invasion, they became so abundant that there is no way, without such tools, to know that this is not a native species from Europe”, she says.

    German cockroaches owe their success to their extraordinary adaptability, says Franz Essl, an ecologist at the University of Vienna. They readily adapt to highly modified environments, such as human-occupied niches; they have a short reproductive cycle; and they are very opportunistic, qualities that “also make them prone to be transported as hitchhikers to new places”, says Essl. “That’s a perfect combination of ingredients for making a species very successful in a human-shaped world.”

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  • Recycled sewage, public health and the memory of the world: Books in brief

    Recycled sewage, public health and the memory of the world: Books in brief

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    Purified

    Peter Annin Island (2024)

    The cover of this revolutionary book shows a recycling symbol, with arrows of clear blue water. Yet the subject is sewage. Environmental and water journalist Peter Annin is satisfied that recycled sewage can be drunk, after studying water recycling for two decades. “In the climate change era, water cannot be taken for granted anymore — and that includes sewage,” he says. Recycling technology could, he argues, relieve the US water crisis, especially in the west, where water diversions have desolated the Colorado River Delta.

    Audubon as Artist

    Roberta J. M. Olson Reaktion (2024)

    As a museum curator in New York City, art historian Roberta Olson looked after 474 watercolours painted by John James Audubon for his classic book The Birds of America (1827–38). Gazing at his birds, she writes, “one wonders whether they might momentarily fly off the page”. Glorious reproductions fill this intriguing book. She regards Audubon as an “American Leonardo da Vinci”, fusing art and science, but focuses more on his art than his naturalism. A gripping self-portrait painted before he found success hints at Audubon’s difficult life.

    The Heart and the Chip

    Daniela Rus & Gregory Mone Norton (2024)

    Computer scientist Daniela Rus has dreamt about robots since she was a child, and has developed them for years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. She is convinced they will not steal our jobs, as is often feared, but will make humans “more capable, productive, precise”. Her engaging book, co-written with science writer Gregory Mone, focuses on combining human and robotic strengths to pair “the heart and the chip” in three interlinked fields: robotics, artificial intelligence and machine learning.

    The Struggle for Public Health

    Fred C. Pampel John Hopkins Univ. Press (2024)

    Rates of death from communicable diseases fell hugely in the late nineteenth century; by 49% for respiratory tuberculosis (TB), for example. But much of the fall had less to do with medical advances — the TB vaccine was not in widespread use until 1954 — than with “rising standards of living, better nutrition, and a strengthening public health movement”, writes sociologist Fred Pampel. His book explores this complexity clearly in seven chapters, each devoted to a public-health pioneer, from epidemiologist John Snow to nurse Lillian Wald.

    Deep Water

    James Bradley Scribe UK (2024)

    “How inappropriate to call this planet ‘Earth’, when clearly it is ‘Ocean’,” said science-fiction author Arthur C. Clarke. His comment opens this meditation by science writer James Bradley. He stands on the Australian coast in 2020, witnessing record bush fires that accompanied record oceanic heating. The ocean, where life began, “is the memory of the world”, he writes, given its pivotal role in evolution, migration, capitalism and climate change. Unless we protect it better, we are heading for catastrophe.

    Competing Interests

    The author declares no competing interests.

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  • Chimet review: Craig Kirkpatrick-Whitby is turning data from two dramatic storms into music

    Chimet review: Craig Kirkpatrick-Whitby is turning data from two dramatic storms into music

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    MINING - West Pole Beacon.

    The West Pole Beacon off the UK’s south coast records weather and sea data

    PJ Davy

    Chimet
    Mining
    The Leaf Label

    Every time Craig Kirkpatrick-Whitby speaks, he has to hold down a button on a device in his neck, which stops air coming out of a hole in his throat. He explains the opening-closing mechanism before he reinserts the white plastic disc. It is a heat and moisture exchanger, implanted to allow him to retain moisture in his lungs.

    “I’ve had cancer three times in the last four-and-a-half years,” he says, his voice now generated by a tracheoesophageal voice prosthesis embedded in the back…

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  • The Creative Brain review: Creativity’s origins defy simple explanations

    The Creative Brain review: Creativity’s origins defy simple explanations

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    Male artist, painting a new creative painting in his art studio

    What is it in the brain that allows some of us to create fabulous and complex artworks?

    FluxFactory/Getty Images

    The Creative Brain
    Anna Abraham
    MIT Press

    Creativity is a product of the human mind. But why are some people more creative than others, making it seem elusive or a gift?

    Having a neurodivergent brain has been proposed as one possibility. Take Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s musical creativity. It has been suggested that he had Tourette’s syndrome, a brain condition linked to a range of symptoms including obsessive behaviour, which could have played a role.…

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  • David Attenborough dominates our pick of 2024’s best science and nature documentaries so far

    David Attenborough dominates our pick of 2024’s best science and nature documentaries so far

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    Mammals,28-04-2024,Heat,5 - Heat,Elephants, Zebra and Springbok gather in high densities at one of the dwindling waterholes in Etosha Salt pan, Namibia. ,BBC Studios,Screen Grab

    BBC TV series Mammals shows why this group dominates the planet

    BBC Studios

    When it comes to TV criticism, three things tend to be true: documentaries don’t always get the attention they deserve; when they do, they are probably about nature; and they are probably narrated by David Attenborough. I am not immune to this tendency as you will see from what follows.

    There have already been many science documentaries that we haven’t had a chance to cover this year. Here are some of the best.

    Let’s start, inevitably, with entries from the incomparable Attenborough. …

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  • Explaining novel scientific concepts to people whose technical acumen does not extend to turning it off, then turning it on again

    Explaining novel scientific concepts to people whose technical acumen does not extend to turning it off, then turning it on again

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    Before I begin the demonstration, it would help to establish a collective level of understanding: can I assume that you all know what a laser is?

    I’m afraid lightsabers are not real, no.

    That is a very good impression, yes. A million dollars, indeed. If only this lab could run on so little, am I right?

    Perhaps it would be best if I started at the beginning.

    Lasers.

    OK, so, do you all remember CD and DVD players? Some of you are too young. For those of you who don’t remember CD players, have you seen a Tik Tok of a cat jumping at a red point? Well, that’s a laser.

    When a beam of light hits something it can be refracted …

    It means split.

    Why didn’t I say split? Good question.

    When a beam of light hits something it can be split from its white whole into different colours, because the colours are all moving at slightly different speeds. This is how we get rainbows. You saw this in a YouTube science tutorial? Good.

    Well, yes, I am aware that rainbows also have a religious connotation but can we agree that the works of the Lord also follow a mundane physical process?

    Where were we? Oh yes, a laser is a method scientists invented to use radiation to send a beam of light of one colour.

    No, unless you shine them in someone’s eye, they aren’t dangerous, it isn’t that sort of radiation.

    Lasers are used everywhere in modern industry, from communications and lighting effects through to industrial cutting and medicinal uses.

    Yes, some of those lasers would be dangerous if you took one home. Particularly if you shone it in someone’s eye.

    So as time went on, researchers and developers discovered new ways of using lasers.

    Different colour light beams were able to be used for different things.

    Yes, precisely, that is why Blu-Ray was called Blu-Ray.

    No, Bluetooth has nothing to do with lasers.

    As I was saying.

    Researchers, including some from the great state of Arizona (go Sun Devils), began to explore novel ways to emit lasers in different colours in parallel, and create white lasers that have been of great use in the manufacturing and research space.

    Researchers here at Cuneiform DARPA have built on that to go one step further. Not a small step, either — one might say a giant leap.

    If I could invite you all to put on the eye protection provided for you in the gift bags.

    Well, no, Senator, we don’t insist on it but we very strongly advise it. If you choose not to, would you please sign the waiver on the clipboard being distributed by my colleague?

    For insurance purposes.

    You may break open the security seals on the envelopes you are being handed, which gives more of the technical details of our breakthrough. The National Security Adviser and the Attorney-General have asked me to remind you all that anything you see or hear from this point forward is covered by legal provisions including, but not limited to, the Espionage Act of 1917, the Securities Act of 1933, and Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution of the United States of America.

    Yes, Congressman Shapiro, I am aware that some sections have been redacted. If you have any questions about that, please direct them to the gentleman and ladies who have joined us from Langley.

    At Cuneiform all researchers invest a day every week in exploring novel applications of technology with no obvious commercial application. In this way we invent the world of the future. Products we have launched that began their lives this way include Drone and 1613.

    Along with my colleagues Dr Johnson and Dr Vaughan we developed Project Perdix.

    Using combinations of experimental technology created by Cuneiform DARPA we have achieved something quite unique. Guiding specific pulses of radiation through nanosheets to create certain geometric forms, which are projected onto two interpenetrating face-centred cubic lattices heated to precisely 1074 kelvin, we have been able to do … this.

    Can we please get some first aid for the Senator? I think if we act quickly we might be able to save his sight.

    We call it ‘The Door’, Deputy-Secretary San Miguel.

    It would be fair to say we don’t know where it goes, exactly.

    No, the flickering isn’t normal. It has never done that before.

    Dr Vaughan, perhaps we should cut the power to the array?

    Why is the door still open, then?

    Whose voices are those, that sound like trumpets?

    The story behind the story

    Joel Glover reveals the inspiration behind Explaining novel scientific concepts to people whose technical acumen does not extend to turning it off, then turning it on again.

    We are sitting in my living room. The Mosconi Cup is on the TV. We have some delightful craft ales that really need drinking before they go off. I (languages graduate, accountant) am trying to explain to my best friend (PhD in chemistry, technology consultant) what it is exactly my new employer does.

    I am failing miserably, and the craft beer is not the only thing that is to blame.

    I am not the most technical person in the world.

    We have white lasers, which I hadn’t known was a thing. Fortunately, neither did he. I enjoyed him finding out about them very much.

    Then, the week after, I sat down to try to learn what exactly it is they do.

    I took that, mixed in satire about the idiotification of politics, the creeping commercialization of natural monopolies, and some demonology, and this is what came out the other end.

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  • How men evolved to care for babies — before society got in the way

    How men evolved to care for babies — before society got in the way

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    Father Time: A Natural History of Men and Babies Sarah Blaffer Hrdy Princeton Univ. Press (2024)

    Primatologist Sarah Hrdy never questioned the idea that hands-on childcare was mainly women’s work — until her first grandchild was born. Then, while watching her son-in-law willingly care for his baby, she began to wonder whether the trend of fathers getting more involved with their children was merely down to cultural change in the decades since she had kids, or whether it could be explained by biology.

    In Father Time, Hrdy takes us on a quest through vertebrate evolution and history to discover when and how men — unlike other male great apes — began to nurture their young. Ultimately, Hrdy finds that the idea of men caring for babies is not as evolutionarily unusual as she had initially surmised. She surprises herself by concluding that men can be every bit as protective and nurturing as the most committed mother.

    Hrdy’s preconceptions of parenting stemmed from half a century studying the reproductive strategies of primates. Her graduate studies were steeped in Darwinian logic, which emphasized that male behaviour is driven by the need to outcompete rivals for mates — a way of being that requires little direct contact with infants. Her early fieldwork in India on Hanuman langur monkeys (Semnopithecus entellus) reinforced this view. Resident male langurs, she observed, paid little to no attention to the young in their group, but incoming males deliberately killed the babies of other males to hasten mating with resident females. Similarly, male apes generally shun infants, and are more likely to kill a newborn than nurture it.

    A rare mammal

    To explore what makes humans different, Hrdy begins her book by going back to our vertebrate origins. Parental care among fish and amphibians is just as likely to be done by males as by females. But in only 5% of mammalian species do males care for their young. Despite the differences in behaviours between fish and mammals, the hormonal and neurological mechanisms that promote parental care in the two groups are similar.

    In mammals, pregnancy and feeding babies trigger the release of hormones, such as prolactin and oxytocin, in the mother’s brain. In humans, these then encourage nurturing behaviours and produce a feeling of bonding towards the infant. But, as Hrdy notes, historically it did not occur to scientists to study how caring for babies might affect male biology.

    The author’s summary of the scant literature reinforces her argument that male nurturing is, like female care, a product of biology. In humans, men who care for infants experience profound biological changes. In the weeks before their baby is born, men experience a surge in prolactin. In the months after birth, their levels of testosterone levels drop and those of the bonding hormone oxytocin rise. Nurturing can also produce changes in the brain: scans of men who are the primary carer of an infant show that their brains light up in response to a crying baby, in much the same way as do the brains of mothers who are the main carers.

    Cultural changes

    Next, the author investigates the evolutionary events that set humans apart from other great apes. At the time of our last common ancestor with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus) — around five million to six million years ago — most other ape species had gone extinct, owing to cooling global temperatures and shrinking forests. Yet our hominin ancestors persevered, despite the fact that their large-brained offspring were weaned off milk earlier than those of other great apes, and required more food than mothers alone could provide through foraging. Male hunters, evolutionary anthropologists reason, must have learnt to share resources with children.

    False clown anemonefish (Amphriprion ocellaris) tending its eggs

    Male clownfish are the main carers for their eggs.Credit: Scubazoo/SPL

    Some researchers have argued that this responsibility-sharing behaviour relied on males being sure of which children were theirs. But Hrdy points out that, among living hunter-gatherers, most of the meat is shared widely — it does not go directly to a hunter’s children. She posits that our ancestors became cooperative breeders, with groups of parents providing support, care and food for growing children together. And she argues that social selection — the subset of natural selection influenced by the behaviour of other individuals — had a central role in this change in parenting, with selection favouring men who had a reputation for cooperation and sharing food, making them more attractive as partners and group members.

    The final chapters of the book focus on the cultural context of human fatherhood, and the ways in which men’s relationships with children have changed over the past few millennia. Hrdy argues that men were more involved in childcare before the invention of agriculture, and the ethnographic data from contemporary hunter-gather populations support her conclusion. Once agriculture was adopted — bringing with it the need to protect resources such as land and livestock — men tended to remain near their kin, whereas women moved away from their families when they married.

    This led to patriarchal systems, increased segregation of men and women in domestic and social spheres, and thus fathers spending less time near their children. The trend continued in market economies, in which men adopted the role of breadwinner and worked outside the house. The most recent generation has seen some erosion of gender barriers, and men have actively been taking on childcare duties. But, as Hrdy discusses, those preferring more conventionally defined roles for mothers and fathers have been pushing back against these changes.

    As always, Hrdy’s writing is a joy to read. Her previous books have focused on female care of offspring and on the broader role of non-parental (typically female) caretakers in shaping human evolution, some of which is rehashed in Father Time. But the focus on fatherhood and men’s biological responses to babies is new. And her model for how male care evolved in humans is plausible (if necessarily speculative).

    Father Time will be valued by anyone interested in male care of infants and children. Hrdy’s broad, accessible writing will appeal to non-scientists, but her peers will appreciate her summary of current research on the hormonal and neurobiological aspects of male care. As a biological anthropologist focused on fatherhood and men’s investments in children, I certainly learnt a great deal.

    Competing Interests

    The author declares no competing interests.

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  • Alien Earths review: Hunting for extraterrestrial life in Lisa Kaltenegger’s new book

    Alien Earths review: Hunting for extraterrestrial life in Lisa Kaltenegger’s new book

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    Illustration of life forms on a hypothetical planet with a slightly lower mass than the Earth. It has shallow seas and extreme tides due to its large moon (thin crescent at left). The vegetation is translucent which allows the light to shine through, so it seems to be glowing, due to it being backlit in this image.

    The amazing differences we may find on other planets highlight the basic difficulty in defining life

    RICHARD BIZLEY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY

    Alien Earths
    Lisa Kaltenegger (Allen Lane (UK) St. Martin’s Press (US))

    A planet where a year lasts just one week due to it whizzing around its star 70 times quicker than the fastest fighter jet. A scorched, Earth-sized world, with two suns, where rocks melt into lava, evaporate and fall as rain. Planets with surfaces covered in vast, deep oceans. Others where their sun never sets, unless you travel to the distant reaches of their…

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  • Enlightenment review: Sarah Perry has written a moving story of life, love and astronomy

    Enlightenment review: Sarah Perry has written a moving story of life, love and astronomy

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    Mandatory Credit: Photo by Phil Ball/Shutterstock (356629a) HALE BOPP COMET COMET HALE BOPP

    Comet Hale-Bopp was visible with the naked eye as it passed Earth in 1997

    Phil Ball/Shutterstock

    Enlightenment
    Sarah Perry (Jonathan Cape)

    SARAH PERRY is a writer most famous for The Essex Serpent, recently made into a high-end TV show on Apple TV+. Perry, being neither a sci-fi author nor a science writer, has until now given us no cause to include her on these pages. Her new novel, Enlightenment, however… the clue is in the title.

    In this gorgeously written, witty and very moving novel, our hero Thomas Hart is a man…

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