Zhou, Y., Poli, I., Meggiolaro, D., De Angelis, F. & Petrozza, A. Defect activity in metal halide perovskites with wide and narrow bandgap. Nat. Rev. Mater. 6, 986–1002 (2021).
Euvrard, J., Yan, Y. & Mitzi, D. B. Electrical doping in halide perovskites. Nat. Rev. Mater. 6, 531–549 (2021).
Lanzetta, L. et al. Degradation mechanism of hybrid tin-based perovskite solar cells and the critical role of tin (IV) iodide. Nat. Commun. 12, 2853 (2021).
Zhou, S. et al. Confronting the air instability of cesium tin halide perovskites by metal ion incorporation. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 12, 10996–11004 (2021).
Hu, S. et al. Narrow bandgap metal halide perovskites for all-perovskite tandem photovoltaics. Chem. Rev. 124, 4079–4123 (2024).
Zhu, H. et al. Tin perovskite transistors and complementary circuits based on A-site cation engineering. Nat. Electron. 6, 650–657 (2023).
Park, G. et al. High-performance tin perovskite transistors through formate pseudohalide engineering. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 159, 100806 (2024).
Yuan, F. et al. Bright and stable near-infrared lead-free perovskite light-emitting diodes. Nat. Photon. 18, 170–176 (2024).
He, D. X. et al. Homogeneous 2D/3D heterostructured tin halide perovskite photovoltaics. Nat. Nanotechnol. 20, 779 (2025).
Liu, A. et al. High-performance metal halide perovskite transistors. Nat. Electron. 6, 559–571 (2023).
Liu, A. et al. Roadmap on metal-halide perovskite semiconductors and devices. Mater. Today Electron. 11, 100138 (2025).
Meggiolaro, D., Ricciarelli, D., Alasmari, A. A., Alasmary, F. A. S. & De Angelis, F. Tin versus lead redox chemistry modulates charge trapping and self-doping in tin/lead iodide perovskites. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 11, 3546–3556 (2020).
Senanayak, S. P. et al. Charge transport in mixed metal halide perovskite semiconductors. Nat. Mater. 22, 216–224 (2023).
Mosquera-Lois, I. et al. Multifaceted nature of defect tolerance in halide perovskites and emerging semiconductors. Nat. Rev. Chem. 9, 287–304 (2025).
Gao, Y., Wei, Z., Yoo, P., Shi, E. & Dou, L. Highly stable lead-free perovskite field-effect transistors incorporating linear π-conjugated organic ligands. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 141, 15577–15585 (2019).
Tang, W. et al. The roles of metal oxidation states in perovskite semiconductors. Matter 6, 3782–3802 (2023).
Ricciarelli, D., Meggiolaro, D., Ambrosio, F. & De Angelis, F. Instability of tin iodide perovskites: bulk p-doping versus surface tin oxidation. ACS Energy Lett. 5, 2787–2795 (2020).
Zhao, J. et al. Dimensional tuning in lead-free tin halide perovskite for solar cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 13, 2204233 (2023).
Liao, Y. et al. Highly oriented low-dimensional tin halide perovskites with enhanced stability and photovoltaic performance. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 139, 6693–6699 (2017).
Liang, A., Gao, Y., Asadpour, R., Wei, Z. & Dou, L. Ligand-driven grain engineering of high mobility two-dimensional perovskite thin-film transistors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143, 15215–15223 (2021).
Wu, B. et al. Discerning the surface and bulk recombination kinetics of organic–inorganic halide perovskite single crystals. Adv. Energy Mater. 6, 1600551 (2016).
Kaiser, W. et al. Defect formation and healing at grain boundaries in lead-halide perovskites. J. Mater. Chem. A 10, 24854–24865 (2022).
Xu, N. et al. Point defects in metal halide perovskites. Nat. Rev. Phys. 7, 554–564 (2025).
Ahmad, B., Limon, M. S. R. & Ahmad, Z. Modulation of point defect properties near surfaces in metal halide perovskites. Phys. Rev. Mater. 8, 125402 (2024).
Na Quan, L. et al. Edge stabilization in reduced-dimensional perovskites. Nat. Commun. 11, 170 (2020).
Zhang, Z. et al. Mechanistic understanding of oxidation of tin-based perovskite solar cells and mitigation strategies. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 62, e202308093 (2023).
Ju, Y. et al. The interactions between halide perovskites and oxygen: from stages to strategies. Matter 7, 3756–3785 (2024).
Treglia, A. et al. Effect of electronic doping and traps on carrier dynamics in tin halide perovskites. Mater. Horiz. 9, 1763–1773 (2022).
Yang, F. et al. High-stable lead-free solar cells achieved by surface reconstruction of quasi-2D tin-based perovskites. Adv. Mater. 36, 2308655 (2024).
Li, W., Ding, S., Wu, C., Qian, L. & Xiang, C. Potassium acetate passivated SnO2 interface for high-efficiency two-step deposited perovskite solar cells. Adv. Sustain. Syst. 7, 2300124 (2023).
Qin, L. et al. Pre-embedded potassium acetate-modified SnO2 electron transfer layer for efficient and durable perovskite solar cells. Nano Lett. 25, 7053–7060 (2025).
Chen, W. et al. Universal in situ oxide-based ABX3-structured seeds for templating halide perovskite growth in All-perovskite tandems. Nat. Commun. 16, 1894 (2025).
Moulder, J. F., Stickle, W. F., Sobol, P. E. & Bomben, K. D. Handbook of X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (Perkin-Elmer, 1992).
Beamson, G. & Briggs, D. High Resolution XPS of Organic Polymers: The Scienta ESCA300 Database (Wiley, 1992).
Deacon, G. B. & Phillips, R. J. Relationships between the carbon–oxygen stretching frequencies of carboxylato complexes and the type of carboxylate coordination. Coord. Chem. Rev. 33, 227–250 (1980).
Donaldson, J. D., Knifton, J. F. & Ross, S. D. The vibrational spectra of some tin (II) carboxylate complexes. Spectrochim. Acta 21, 1043–1046 (1965).
Reo, Y. et al. Vapour-deposited high-performance tin perovskite transistors. Nat. Electron. 8, 403–410 (2025).
Li, H. et al. Surface reconstruction for tin-based perovskite solar cells. ACS Energy Lett. 7, 3889–3899 (2022).
Ye, T. et al. Localized electron density engineering for stabilized B-γ CsSnI3-based perovskite solar cells with efficiencies >10%. ACS Energy Lett. 6, 1480–1489 (2021).
Du, L. et al. Reliable vapor-deposited tin perovskites for high-performance and low-power complementary electronics. Adv. Mater. 38, e72842 (2026).
Yang, W. et al. Fluorinated organic A-cation enabling high-performance hysteresis-free 2D/3D hybrid tin perovskite transistors. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2303309 (2023).
Mativenga, M., Haque, F., Billah, M. M. & Um, J. G. Origin of light instability in amorphous IGZO thin-film transistors and its suppression. Sci. Rep. 11, 14618 (2021).
Cai, Y. et al. 2D-layered manganese perovskite with high mobility. Adv. Funct. Mater. 33, 2211191 (2023).
Tang, L. et al. High-performance organic–inorganic hybrid perovskite thin-film field-effect transistors. Appl. Phys. A 124, 624 (2018).
Matsushima, T., Fujita, K. & Tsutsui, T. High field-effect hole mobility in organic-inorganic hybrid thin films prepared by vacuum vapor deposition technique. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 43, L1199 (2004).
Roh, T. et al. Growth of tin halide perovskite film on two-dimensional hexagonal boron nitride via thermal evaporation. ACS Energy Lett. 10, 5084–5092 (2025).
Yang, W. et al. Additive-free thermally evaporated tin halide perovskite transistors. Mater. Sci. Eng. R Rep. 168, 101141 (2026).
Pesci, M. et al. Stability of tin-containing hybrid perovskites: the thermal decomposition of formamidinium tin triiodide (FASnI3) investigated by thermogravimetry and effusion techniques. J. Phys. Chem. C 129, 9291–9301 (2025).
Kaiser, W. et al. Stability of tin- versus lead-halide perovskites: ab initio molecular dynamics simulations of perovskite/water interfaces. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 13, 2321–2329 (2022).
Kim, Y. et al. Reversible oxidative p-doping in 2D tin halide perovskite field-effect transistors. ACS Energy Lett. 9, 1725–1734 (2024).
Kresse, G. & Furthmüller, J. Efficient iterative schemes for ab initio total-energy calculations using a plane-wave basis set. Phys. Rev. B 54, 11169–11186 (1996).
Blöchl, P. E. Projector augmented-wave method. Phys. Rev. B 50, 17953–17979 (1994).
Perdew, J. P. et al. Restoring the density-gradient expansion for exchange in solids and surfaces. Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 136406 (2008).
Buckeridge, J., Scanlon, D. O., Walsh, A. & Catlow, C. R. A. Automated procedure to determine the thermodynamic stability of a material and the range of chemical potentials necessary for its formation relative to competing phases and compounds. Comput. Phys. Commun. 185, 330–338 (2014).
Momma, K. & Izumi, F. VESTA 3 for three-dimensional visualization of crystal, volumetric and morphology data. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 44, 1272–1276 (2011).
