Hartmann, J. et al. Enhanced chemical weathering as a geoengineering strategy to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide, supply nutrients, and mitigate ocean acidification. Rev. Geophys. 51, 113–149 (2013).
Renforth, P. The negative emission potential of alkaline materials. Nat. Commun. 10, 1401 (2019).
Knapp, W. J. & Tipper, E. T. The efficacy of enhancing carbonate weathering for carbon dioxide sequestration. Front. Clim. 4, 928215 (2022).
Larkin, C. S. et al. Quantification of CO2 removal in a large-scale enhanced weathering field trial on an oil palm plantation in Sabah, Malaysia. Front. Clim. 4, 959229 (2022).
Holden, F. J. et al. In-field carbon dioxide removal via weathering of crushed basalt applied to acidic tropical agricultural soil. Sci. Total Environ. 955, 176568 (2024).
Ibarra, D. E. et al. Differential weathering of basaltic and granitic catchments from concentration–discharge relationships. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 190, 265–293 (2016).
Cole, T. L., Torres, M. A. & Kemeny, P. C. The hydrochemical signature of incongruent weathering in Iceland. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 127, e2021JF006450 (2022).
Cunningham, C. J. et al. Carbon dioxide removal during dissolution of granular basalt: a mass balance test of enhanced rock weathering at the hillslope scale. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 671, 119662 (2025).
Strefler, J., Amann, T., Bauer, N., Kriegler, E. & Hartmann, J. Potential and costs of carbon dioxide removal by enhanced weathering of rocks. Environ. Res. Lett. 13, 034010 (2018).
Beerling, D. J. et al. Potential for large-scale CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands. Nature 583, 242–248 (2020).
Goll, D. S. et al. Potential CO2 removal from enhanced weathering by ecosystem responses to powdered rock. Nat. Geosci. 14, 545–54 (2021).
Gaillardet, J., Dupré, B., Louvat, P. & Allègre, C. Global silicate weathering and CO2 consumption rates deduced from the chemistry of large rivers. Chem. Geol. 159, 3–30 (1999).
Dessert, C., Dupré, B., Gaillardet, J., François, L. & Allègre, C. Basalt weathering laws and the impact of basalt weathering on the global carbon cycle. Chem. Geol. 202, 257–273 (2003).
Hartmann, J., Jansen, N., Dürr, H., Kempe, S. & Köhler, P. Global CO2-consumption by chemical weathering: what is the contribution of highly active weathering regions? Glob. Planet. Change 69, 185–194 (2009).
Bednar, J. et al. Beyond emissions trading to a negative carbon economy: a proposed carbon removal obligation and its implementation. Clim. Policy 24, 501–514 (2024).
Dupla, X. et al. in Geoengineering and Climate Change: Methods, Risks, and Governance (ed. Beech, M.) 207–230 (Wiley, 2025).
Power, I. M. et al. Are enhanced rock weathering rates overestimated? A few geochemical and mineralogical pitfalls. Front. Clim. 6, 1510747 (2025).
Beerling, D. J. et al. Enhanced weathering in the US Corn Belt delivers carbon removal with agronomic benefits. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2319436121 (2024).
Derry, L. A., Chadwick, O. A. & Porder, S. Estimation of carbon dioxide removal via enhanced weathering. Glob. Change Biol. 31, e70067 (2025).
Rogers, B. & Maher, K. An uncertainty-aware framework for solid-phase measurement and verification of enhanced weathering. Front. Clim. 7, 1688361 (2026).
Beerling, D. J. et al. Transforming US agriculture for carbon removal with enhanced weathering. Nature 638, 425–434 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08429-2 (2025).
Brunner, C., Hausfather, Z. & Knutti, R. Durability of carbon dioxide removal is critical for Paris climate goals. Commun. Earth Environ. 5, 645 (2024).
Hartmann, J. & Moosdorf, N. The new global lithological map database GLiM: a representation of rock properties at the Earth surface. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 13, Q12004 (2012).
Schopka, H. H., Derry, L. A. & Arcilla, C. A. Chemical weathering, river geochemistry and atmospheric carbon fluxes from volcanic and ultramafic regions on Luzon Island, the Philippines. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 978–1002 (2011).
Li, G. et al. Temperature dependence of basalt weathering. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 443, 59–69 (2016).
Chen, C. et al. Enhanced weathering by multiscale destabilization of volcanic islands. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 671, 119649 (2025).
Gran, K. B., Montgomery, D. R. & Halbur, J. C. Long-term elevated post-eruption sedimentation at Mount Pinatubo, Philippines. Geology 39, 367–370 (2011).
Paladio-Melosantos, L. O. et al. in Fire and Mud; Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (ed. Newhall, C. G.) 413–535 (Univ. Washington Press, 1996).
Lewis, A. L. et al. Effects of mineralogy, chemistry and physical properties of basalts on carbon capture potential and plant-nutrient element release via enhanced weathering. Appl. Geochem. 132, 105023 (2021).
Schopka, H. H. & Derry, L. A. Chemical weathering fluxes from volcanic islands and the importance of groundwater: the Hawaiian example. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 339–340, 67–78 (2012).
Maher, K. The dependence of chemical weathering rates on fluid residence time. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 294, 101–110 (2010).
Brantley, S. L. Understanding the lab-field discrepancy in mineral dissolution from flasks to enhanced rock weathering. Rev. Geophys. 63, e2025RG000881 (2025).
Beckingham, L. E. et al. Evaluation of accessible mineral surface areas for improved prediction of mineral reaction rates in porous media. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 205, 31–49 (2017).
Amann, T., Hartmann, J., Hellmann, R., Pedrosa, E. & Malik, A. Enhanced weathering potentials—the role of in situ CO2 and grain size distribution. Front. Clim. 4, 929268 (2022).
Bolt, G. H. & Van Riemsdijk, W. H. in Developments in Soil Science Vol. 5 (ed. Bolt, G. H.) 459–504 (Elsevier, 1979).
Slessarev, E. W. et al. Water balance creates a threshold in soil pH at the global scale. Nature 540, 567–569 (2016).
Royer, D. L. Depth to pedogenic carbonate horizon as a paleoprecipitation indicator? Geology 27, 1123–1126 (1999).
Maher, K., Steefel, C. I., White, A. F. & Stonestrom, D. A. The role of reaction affinity and secondary minerals in regulating chemical weathering rates at the Santa Cruz Soil Chronosequence, California. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 73, 2804–2831 (2009).
Guertin, A. et al. Stable silicon isotope fractionation reflects the routing of water through a mesoscale hillslope. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 648, 119098 (2024).
Lawrence, C., Harden, J. & Maher, K. Modeling the influence of organic acids on soil weathering. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 139, 487–507 (2014).
Perez-Fodich, A. & Derry, L. A. Organic acids and high soil CO2 drive intense chemical weathering of Hawaiian basalts: insights from reactive transport models. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 249, 173–198 (2019).
Porder, S., Hilley, G. E. & Chadwick, O. A. Chemical weathering, mass loss, and dust inputs across a climate by time matrix in the Hawaiian Islands. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 258, 414–427 (2007).
Schlegel, M. et al. Estimated in-situ carbon sequestration rates in a weathered silicate basin, southwestern Idaho, USA. Chem. Geol. 670, 122460 (2024).
Gastmans, D., Hutcheon, I., Menegário, A. A. & Chang, H. K. Geochemical evolution of groundwater in a basaltic aquifer based on chemical and stable isotopic data: case study from the Northeastern portion of Serra Geral Aquifer, São Paulo state (Brazil). J. Hydrol. 535, 598–611 (2016).
Thomas, D. L., Bird, D. K., Arnórsson, S. & Maher, K. Geochemistry of CO2-rich waters in Iceland. Chem. Geol. 444, 158–179 (2016).
Steinkampf, W. C. & Hearn, P. P. Jr. Ground-water geochemistry of the Columbia Plateau aquifer system, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Open-File Report 95-467 (U.S. Geological Survey, 1996).
Peucker-Ehrenbrink, B. Land2Sea database of river drainage basin sizes, annual water discharges, and suspended sediment fluxes. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 10, Q06014 (2009).
Potapov, P. et al. Global maps of cropland extent and change show accelerated cropland expansion in the twenty-first century. Nat. Food 3, 19–28 (2022).
Reitz, M., Sanford, W. E., Senay, G. B. & Cazenas, J. Annual estimates of recharge, quick-flow runoff, and evapotranspiration for the contiguous U.S. using empirical regression equations. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 53, 961–983 (2017).
Muller, O. V., McGuire, P. C., Vidale, P. L. & Hawkins, E. River flow in the near future: a global perspective in the context of a high-emission climate change scenario. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 28, 2179–2201 (2024).
Zhang, S., Reinhard, C. T., Liu, S., Kanzaki, Y. & Planavsky, N. J. A framework for modeling carbon loss from rivers following terrestrial enhanced weathering. Environ. Res. Lett. 20, 024014 (2025).
Kantola, I. B. B. et al. Improved net carbon budgets in the US Midwest through direct measured impacts of enhanced weathering. Glob. Change Biol. 29, 7012–7028 (2023).
Dupla, X., Bertagni, M. & Grand, S. Three years of field trials indicate a sustained enhanced rock weathering signal with limited CO2 removal. Environ. Sci. Technol. 59, 25751–25764 (2025).
Moon, S., Chamberlain, C. P. & Hilley, G. E. New estimates of silicate weathering rates and their uncertainties in global rivers. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 134, 257–274 (2014).
Derry, L. A. Closing the geologic carbon cycle. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2409333121 (2024).
Rad, S. D., Allègre, C. J. & Louvat, P. Hidden erosion on volcanic islands. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 262, 109–124 (2007).
Friedlingstein, P. et al. Global Carbon Budget 2024. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 17, 965–1039 (2025).
Wang, J. et al. Sampling frequency, load estimation and the disproportionate effect of storms on solute mass flux in rivers. Sci. Total Environ. 906, 167379 (2024).
Dessert, C. et al. Controls on chemical weathering on a mountainous volcanic tropical island: Guadeloupe (French West Indies). Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 171, 216–237 (2015).
Trostle, K., Derry, L., Vigier, N. & Chadwick, O. Magnesium isotope fractionation during arid pedogenesis on the Island of Hawaii (USA). Procedia Earth Planet. Sci. 10, 243–248 (2014).
Ryu, J.-S., Vigier, N., Derry, L. & Chadwick, O. A. Variations of Mg isotope geochemistry in soils over a Hawaiian 4 Myr chronosequence. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 292, 94–114 (2021).
Kurtz, A. C., Derry, L. A. & Chadwick, O. A. Germanium-silicon fractionation in the weathering environment. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 66, 1525–1537 (2002).
Derry, L. A., Kurtz, A. C., Ziegler, K. & Chadwick, O. A. Biological control of terrestrial silica cycling and export fluxes to watersheds. Nature 433, 728–731 (2005).
Pohlmann, M. et al. Pore water chemistry reveals gradients in mineral transformation across a model basaltic hillslope. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 17, 2054–2069 (2016).
Van Den Heuvel, D. B. et al. Effects of differential hillslope-scale water retention characteristics on rainfall–runoff response at the Landscape Evolution Observatory. Hydrol. Process. 32, 2118–2127 (2018).
Kim, M. et al. Direct observation of hillslope scale StorAge selection functions in experimental hydrologic systems: geomorphologic structure and preferential discharge of old water. Water Resour. Res. 58, e2020WR028959 (2022).
Moosdorf, N., Renforth, P. & Hartmann, J. Carbon dioxide efficiency of terrestrial enhanced weathering. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 4809–4816 (2014).
Börker, J., Hartmann, J., Romero-Mujalli, G. & Li, G. Aging of basalt volcanic systems and decreasing CO2 consumption by weathering. Earth Surf. Dyn. 7, 191–197 (2019).
Delerce, S., Heřmanská, M., Bénézeth, P., Schott, J. & Oelkers, E. H. Experimental determination of the reactivity of basalts as a function of their degree of alteration. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 360, 106–121 (2023).
Kemp, S. J., Lewis, A. L. & Rushton, J. C. Detection and quantification of low levels of carbonate mineral species using thermogravimetric-mass spectrometry to validate CO2 drawdown via enhanced rock weathering. Appl. Geochem. 146, 105465 (2022).
Wolff-Boenisch, D., Gislason, S. R., Oelkers, E. H. & Putnis, C. V. The dissolution rates of natural glasses as a function of their composition at pH 4 and 10.6, and temperatures from 25 to 74°C. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 68, 4843–4858 (2004).
Shalev, N. et al. Enrichment of 88Sr in continental waters due to calcium carbonate precipitation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 459, 381–393 (2017).
Chen, B.-B. et al. Ca isotope constraints on chemical weathering processes: evidence from headwater in the Changjiang River, China. Chem. Geol. 531, 119341 (2020).
Liu, H.-C. et al. Carbonate precipitation-derived CO2 outgassing offsets the mineral weathering sink in the orogenic regime of southwestern Taiwan: insights from triple Sr isotopes. Sci. Total Environ. 956, 177370 (2024).
Schlegel, M. et al. Carbon evolution and mixing effects on groundwater age calculations in fractured basalt, southwestern Idaho, USA. Front. Water 6, 1388465 (2024).
Nelson, C. J., Jacobson, A. D. & Weisenberger, T. B. Controls on riverine calcium isotope ratios during basalt weathering in the Skagafjörður watershed, Iceland. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 333, 216–241 (2022).
Deirmendjian, L. & Abril, G. Carbon dioxide degassing at the groundwater-stream-atmosphere interface: isotopic equilibration and hydrological mass balance in a sandy watershed. J. Hydrol. 558, 129–143 (2018).
Escoffier, N., Perolo, P., Many, G., Pasche, N. T. & Perga, M.-E. Fine-scale dynamics of calcite precipitation in a large hardwater lake. Sci. Total Environ. 864, 160699 (2023).
Many, G. et al. Calcite precipitation: the forgotten piece of lakes’ carbon cycle. Sci. Adv. 10, eado5924 (2024).
Wang, J. et al. Drought constrictions on lateral carbon transport. Nat. Geosci. 18, 1138–1143 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-025-01807-z (2025).
Vienne, A. et al. Weathering without inorganic CDR revealed through cation tracing. Soil 12, 421–440 (2026).
Holzer, I. O., Nocco, M. A. & Houlton, B. Z. Direct evidence for atmospheric carbon dioxide removal via enhanced weathering in cropland soil. Environ. Res. Commun. 5, 101004 (2023).
Fisher, B. A. et al. Mineral surface area in deep weathering profiles reveals the interrelationship of iron oxidation and silicate weathering. Earth Surf. Dyn. 11, 51–69 (2023).