Reed, R. C. The Superalloys: Fundamentals and Applications (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006).
Mukherjee, T. et al. Control of grain structure, phases, and defects in additive manufacturing of high-performance metallic components. Prog. Mater. Sci. 138, 101153 (2023).
Litnovsky, A. et al. Optimization of single crystal mirrors for ITER diagnostics. Fusion Eng. Des. 146, 1450–1453 (2019).
Song, T. et al. Strong and ductile titanium–oxygen–iron alloys by additive manufacturing. Nature 618, 63–68 (2023).
Zhu, Y. et al. Ultrastrong nanotwinned titanium alloys through additive manufacturing. Nat. Mater. 21, 1258–1262 (2022).
Smith, T. M. et al. A 3D printable alloy designed for extreme environments. Nature 617, 513–518 (2023).
Ren, J. et al. Strong yet ductile nanolamellar high-entropy alloys by additive manufacturing. Nature 608, 62–68 (2022).
Zhang, J. et al. Ultrauniform, strong, and ductile 3D-printed titanium alloy through bifunctional alloy design. Science 383, 639–645 (2024).
DebRoy, T. et al. Additive manufacturing of metallic components – process, structure and properties. Prog. Mater. Sci. 92, 112–224 (2018).
Gäumann, M., Bezencon, C., Canalis, P. & Kurz, W. Single-crystal laser deposition of superalloys: processing–microstructure maps. Acta Mater. 49, 1051–1062 (2001).
Basak, A., Acharya, R. & Das, S. Epitaxial deposition of nickel-based superalloy René 142 through scanning laser epitaxy (SLE). Addit. Manuf. 22, 665–671 (2018).
Körner, C. et al. Microstructure and mechanical properties of CMSX-4 single crystals prepared by additive manufacturing. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 49, 3781–3792 (2018).
Beladi, H., Chao, Q. & Rohrer, G. S. Variant selection and intervariant crystallographic planes distribution in martensite in a Ti–6Al–4V alloy. Acta Mater. 80, 478–489 (2014).
Qu, Z. et al. High fatigue resistance in a titanium alloy via near-void-free 3D printing. Nature 626, 999–1004 (2024).
Zhang, D. et al. Additive manufacturing of ultrafine-grained high-strength titanium alloys. Nature 576, 91–95 (2019).
Zhang, T. et al. In situ design of advanced titanium alloy with concentration modulations by additive manufacturing. Science 374, 478–482 (2021).
Zhao, S. et al. Cryoforged nanotwinned titanium with ultrahigh strength and ductility. Science 373, 1363–1368 (2021).
Todaro, C. J. et al. Grain structure control during metal 3D printing by high-intensity ultrasound. Nat. Commun. 11, 142 (2020).
Chandra, S., Radhakrishnan, J., Huang, S., Wei, S. & Ramamurty, U. Solidification in metal additive manufacturing: challenges, solutions, and opportunities. Prog. Mater. Sci. 148, 101361 (2025).
Müller, G. & Friedrich, J. in Encyclopedia of Condensed Matter Physics (eds Bassani, G. F., Liedl, G. L. & Wyder, P.) 262–274 (Elsevier, 2005).
Dhanaraj, G., Byrappa, K., Prasad, V. & Dudley, M. Springer Handbook of Crystal Growth (Springer, 2010).
Limmaneevichitr, C. & Kou, S. Experiments to simulate effect of Marangoni convection on weld pool shape. Weld. J. 79, 231S–237S (2000).
Lee, Y. & Farson, D. F. Simulation of transport phenomena and melt pool shape for multiple layer additive manufacturing. J. Laser. Appl. 28, 012006 (2016).
Cayron, C., Artaud, B. & Briottet, L. Reconstruction of parent grains from EBSD data. Mater. Charact. 57, 386–401 (2006).
Haxhimali, T., Karma, A., Gonzales, F. & Rappaz, M. Orientation selection in dendritic evolution. Nat. Mater. 5, 660–664 (2006).
Fouad, D. M., Panwisawas, C., Ge, H., Chiu, Y.-L. & Attallah, M. M. Achieving the strength-ductility balance through the control of the prior β-grain size in laser beam powder bed fusion of Ti-6Al-4V. Addit. Manuf. 109, 104842 (2025).
Cortez Alves de Oliveira, V. M. et al. Short-term creep properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy subjected to surface plasma carburizing process. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 4, 359–366 (2015).
Oliveira, V. M. C. A., Vazquez, A. M., Aguiar, C., Robin, A. & Barboza, M. J. R. Nitride coatings improve Ti-6Al-4V alloy behavior in creep tests. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 670, 357–368 (2016).
Reis, A. G. D., Reis, D. A. P., de Moura Neto, C., Barboza, M. J. R. & Oñoro, J. Creep behavior and surface characterization of a laser surface nitrided Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 577, 48–53 (2013).
Barboza, M. J. R., Moura Neto, C. & Silva, C. R. M. Creep mechanisms and physical modeling for Ti–6Al–4V. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 369, 201–209 (2004).
Spigarelli, S., Paoletti, C., Cabibbo, M., Cerri, E. & Santecchia, E. On the creep performance of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy processed by additive manufacturing. Addit. Manuf. 49, 102520 (2022).
Fereiduni, E., Ghasemi, A. & Elbestawi, M. TiB reinforced Ti-6Al-4V matrix composites with improved short-term creep performance fabricated by laser powder bed fusion. J. Manuf. Process. 70, 593–607 (2021).
Darling, K. et al. Extreme creep resistance in a microstructurally stable nanocrystalline alloy. Nature 537, 378–381 (2016).
Lütjering, G. & Williams, J. C. Titanium 2nd edn (Springer, 2007).
Talignani, A. et al. A review on additive manufacturing of refractory tungsten and tungsten alloys. Addit. Manuf. 58, 103009 (2022).