Dark Mode Light Mode
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.
Join us on a journey where chemistry meets creativity, and the wonders of science unfold. Quench your intellectual thirst with thought-provoking articles that transcend the boundaries of conventional knowledge.

Molecular mechanisms and pathogenesis of MASH

Molecular mechanisms and pathogenesis of MASH Molecular mechanisms and pathogenesis of MASH


  • Rinella, M. E. et al. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. J. Hepatol. 79, 1542–1556 (2023). International consensus statement providing the new nomenclature for MASLD.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ludwig, J., Viggiano, T. R., McGill, D. B. & Oh, B. J. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: Mayo Clinic experiences with a hitherto unnamed disease. Mayo Clin. Proc. 55, 434–438 (1980). The initial publication describing the disease NASH.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huang, D. Q., El-Serag, H. B. & Loomba, R. Global epidemiology of NAFLD-related HCC: trends, predictions, risk factors and prevention. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 18, 223–238 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Younossi, Z. M., Kalligeros, M. & Henry, L. Epidemiology of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. Clin. Mol. Hepatol. 31, S32–S50 (2025).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhou, X. D. et al. Global burden of disease attributable to metabolic risk factors in adolescents and young adults aged 15-39, 1990-2021. Clin. Nutr. 43, 391–404 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Stroes, A. R., Vos, M., Benninga, M. A. & Koot, B. G. P. Pediatric MASLD: current understanding and practical approach. Eur. J. Pediatr. 184, 29 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lefere, S. et al. Update in clinical science: MASLD in children and adolescents. J. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2026.02.016 (2026).

  • Ding, J. et al. Integrative multiomic analysis identifies distinct molecular subtypes of NAFLD in a Chinese population. Sci. Transl. Med. 16, eadh9940 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Jamialahmadi, O. et al. Partitioned polygenic risk scores identify distinct types of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. Nat. Med. 30, 3614–3623 (2024). The authors identified that MASLD comprises of at least two subgroups: liver-centric and cardiometabolic centric.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Raverdy, V. et al. Data-driven cluster analysis identifies distinct types of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. Nat. Med. 30, 3624–3633 (2024). The authors identified MASLD as comprising at least 2 subgroups: liver-centric and cardiometabolic centric.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Le, P. et al. Estimated burden of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in US adults, 2020 to 2050. JAMA Netw. Open 8, e2454707 (2025).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • McPherson, S. et al. Evidence of NAFLD progression from steatosis to fibrosing-steatohepatitis using paired biopsies: implications for prognosis and clinical management. J. Hepatol. 62, 1148–1155 (2015).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kleiner, D. E. et al. Design and validation of a histological scoring system for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 41, 1313–1321 (2005). This study introduced the histopathological NAS for the assessment of NASH/MASH.

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huang, D. Q. et al. Changing global epidemiology of liver cancer from 2010 to 2019: NASH is the fastest growing cause of liver cancer. Cell Metab. 34, 969–977 (2022). The authors identified that NASH/MASH is the fastest growing cause of liver cancer in the past decade.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Vitale, A. et al. Epidemiological trends and trajectories of MAFLD-associated hepatocellular carcinoma 2002-2033: the ITA.LI.CA database. Gut 72, 141–152 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Koh, J. H. et al. NASH is the leading cause of hepatocellular carcinoma in liver transplant candidates. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 22, 197–199 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hall, K. D. et al. Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: an inpatient randomized controlled trial of ad libitum food intake. Cell Metab. 30, 67–77 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Karlsen, T. H. et al. The EASL-Lancet Commission on liver health in Europe: prevention, case-finding, and early diagnosis to reduce liver-related mortality. Lancet 403, 1522–1524 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sung, H. et al. Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 71, 209–249 (2021).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Tilg, H. & Moschen, A. R. Evolution of inflammation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: the multiple parallel hits hypothesis. Hepatology 52, 1836–1846 (2010).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wolf, M. J. et al. Metabolic activation of intrahepatic CD8+ T cells and NKT cells causes nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and liver cancer via cross-talk with hepatocytes. Cancer Cell 26, 549–564 (2014). The authors demonstrated that CD8+ T cells and natural killer T cells drive liver injury, steatosis and liver cancer by modulating fatty acid metabolism in hepatocytes.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gomes, A. L. et al. Metabolic inflammation-associated IL-17A causes non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer Cell 30, 161–175 (2016). The authors showed that IL-17A secreted by TH17 cells drive adipose tissue insulin resistance, MASH and HCC.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Malehmir, M. et al. Platelet GPIbα is a mediator and potential interventional target for NASH and subsequent liver cancer. Nat. Med. 25, 641–655 (2019). The authors demonstrated that intrahepatic platelets drive MASH and MASH-HCC and APT can attenuate this process.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rappez, L. et al. SpaceM reveals metabolic states of single cells. Nat. Methods 18, 799–805 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Byrne, C. D., Armandi, A., Pellegrinelli, V., Vidal-Puig, A. & Bugianesi, E. Μetabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: a condition of heterogeneous metabolic risk factors, mechanisms and comorbidities requiring holistic treatment. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 22, 314–328 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Targher, G., Byrne, C. D. & Tilg, H. MASLD: a systemic metabolic disorder with cardiovascular and malignant complications. Gut 73, 691–702 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ertle, J. et al. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease progresses to hepatocellular carcinoma in the absence of apparent cirrhosis. Int. J. Cancer 128, 2436–2443 (2011).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Piscaglia, F. et al. Clinical patterns of hepatocellular carcinoma in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a multicenter prospective study. Hepatology 63, 827–838 (2016).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Targher, G., Valenti, L. & Byrne, C. D. Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 393, 683–698 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Letouzé, E. et al. Mutational signatures reveal the dynamic interplay of risk factors and cellular processes during liver tumorigenesis. Nat. Commun. 8, 1315 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, K. F. et al. The role of skeletal muscle insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104, 12587–12594 (2007).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Roden, M. & Shulman, G. I. The integrative biology of type 2 diabetes. Nature 576, 51–60 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Abul-Husn, N. S. et al. A protein-truncating HSD17B13 variant and protection from chronic liver disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 378, 1096–1106 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Anstee, Q. M. et al. Genome-wide association study of non-alcoholic fatty liver and steatohepatitis in a histologically characterised cohort. J. Hepatol. 73, 505–515 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kozlitina, J. et al. Exome-wide association study identifies a TM6SF2 variant that confers susceptibility to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nat. Genet. 46, 352–356 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Romeo, S. et al. Genetic variation in PNPLA3 confers susceptibility to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nat. Genet. 40, 1461–1465 (2008). The initial paper that identified the PNPLA3 risk variant contributing to MASLD progression.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mancina, R. M. et al. The MBOAT7-TMC4 variant rs641738 increases risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in individuals of European descent. Gastroenterology 150, 1219–1230 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bianco, C. et al. Non-invasive stratification of hepatocellular carcinoma risk in non-alcoholic fatty liver using polygenic risk scores. J. Hepatol. 74, 775–782 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • De Vincentis, A. et al. A polygenic risk score to refine risk stratification and prediction for severe liver disease by clinical fibrosis scores. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 20, 658–673 (2022).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • He, S. et al. A sequence variation (I148M) in PNPLA3 associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease disrupts triglyceride hydrolysis. J. Biol. Chem. 285, 6706–6715 (2010).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Smagris, E. et al. Pnpla3I148M knockin mice accumulate PNPLA3 on lipid droplets and develop hepatic steatosis. Hepatology 61, 108–118 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Li, J. Z. et al. Chronic overexpression of PNPLA3I148M in mouse liver causes hepatic steatosis. J. Clin. Invest. 122, 4130–4144 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Basantani, M. K. et al. Pnpla3/Adiponutrin deficiency in mice does not contribute to fatty liver disease or metabolic syndrome. J. Lipid Res. 52, 318–329 (2011).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • BasuRay, S., Smagris, E., Cohen, J. C. & Hobbs, H. H. The PNPLA3 variant associated with fatty liver disease (I148M) accumulates on lipid droplets by evading ubiquitylation. Hepatology 66, 1111–1124 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sherman, D. J. et al. PNPLA3-I148M is a neomorph that interferes with two primary hepatic triglyceride clearance pathways. Cell Rep. 44, 116371 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, Y. et al. PNPLA3(148M) is a gain-of-function mutation that promotes hepatic steatosis by inhibiting ATGL-mediated triglyceride hydrolysis. J. Hepatol. 82, 871–881 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, Y., Kory, N., BasuRay, S., Cohen, J. C. & Hobbs, H. H. PNPLA3, CGI-58, and inhibition of hepatic triglyceride hydrolysis in mice. Hepatology 69, 2427–2441 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Johnson, S. M. et al. PNPLA3 is a triglyceride lipase that mobilizes polyunsaturated fatty acids to facilitate hepatic secretion of large-sized very low-density lipoprotein. Nat. Commun. 15, 4847 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pirazzi, C. et al. Patatin-like phospholipase domain-containing 3 (PNPLA3) I148M (rs738409) affects hepatic VLDL secretion in humans and in vitro. J. Hepatol. 57, 1276–1282 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Luukkonen, P. K. et al. The PNPLA3 I148M variant increases ketogenesis and decreases hepatic de novo lipogenesis and mitochondrial function in humans. Cell Metab. 35, 1887–1896 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yki-Järvinen, H. & Luukkonen, P. K. Function of PNPLA3 I148M—lessons from in vivo studies in humans. Liver Int. 45, e70047 (2025).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Caon, E. et al. Exploring the impact of the PNPLA3 I148M variant on primary human hepatic stellate cells using 3D extracellular matrix models. J. Hepatol. 80, 941–956 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pirazzi, C. et al. PNPLA3 has retinyl-palmitate lipase activity in human hepatic stellate cells. Hum. Mol. Genet. 23, 4077–4085 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Liu, Y. L. et al. Carriage of the PNPLA3 rs738409 C>G polymorphism confers an increased risk of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease associated hepatocellular carcinoma. J. Hepatol. 61, 75–81 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rosso, C. et al. Impact of PNPLA3 rs738409 polymorphism on the development of liver-related events in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 21, 3314–3321 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Fabbrini, E. et al. Phase 1 trials of PNPLA3 siRNA in I148M homozygous patients with MAFLD. N. Engl. J. Med. 391, 475–476 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Liu, Y. L. et al. TM6SF2 rs58542926 influences hepatic fibrosis progression in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Nat. Commun. 5, 4309 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Borén, J. et al. Effects of TM6SF2 E167K on hepatic lipid and very low-density lipoprotein metabolism in humans. JCI Insight https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.144079 (2020).

  • Ehrhardt, N. et al. Hepatic Tm6sf2 overexpression affects cellular ApoB-trafficking, plasma lipid levels, hepatic steatosis and atherosclerosis. Hum. Mol. Genet. 26, 2719–2731 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Prill, S. et al. The TM6SF2 E167K genetic variant induces lipid biosynthesis and reduces apolipoprotein B secretion in human hepatic 3D spheroids. Sci. Rep. 9, 11585 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dongiovanni, P. et al. Transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2 gene variant disentangles nonalcoholic steatohepatitis from cardiovascular disease. Hepatology 61, 506–514 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Holmen, O. L. et al. Systematic evaluation of coding variation identifies a candidate causal variant in TM6SF2 influencing total cholesterol and myocardial infarction risk. Nat. Genet. 46, 345–351 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Beer, N. L. et al. The P446L variant in GCKR associated with fasting plasma glucose and triglyceride levels exerts its effect through increased glucokinase activity in liver. Hum. Mol. Genet. 18, 4081–4088 (2009).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ma, Y. et al. 17-β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 13 is a hepatic retinol dehydrogenase associated with histological features of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 69, 1504–1519 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rendel, M. D. et al. The common p.Ile291Val variant of ERLIN1 enhances TM6SF2 function and is associated with protection against MASLD. Med https://doi.org/10.1016/j.medj.2024.04.010 (2024).

  • Pinyol, R. et al. Molecular characterisation of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. J. Hepatol. 75, 865–878 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chotiprasidhi, P., Sato-Espinoza, A. K. & Wangensteen, K. J. Germline Genetic Associations for Hepatobiliary Cancers. Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 17, 623–638 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mezina, A. et al. Multigene panel testing in individuals with hepatocellular carcinoma identifies pathogenic germline variants. JCO Precis. Oncol. https://doi.org/10.1200/po.21.00079 (2021).

  • Rothman, D. L. et al. Decreased muscle glucose transport/phosphorylation is an early defect in the pathogenesis of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 92, 983–987 (1995).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cline, G. W. et al. Impaired glucose transport as a cause of decreased insulin-stimulated muscle glycogen synthesis in type 2 diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 240–246 (1999).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Shulman, G. I. et al. Quantitation of muscle glycogen synthesis in normal subjects and subjects with non-insulin-dependent diabetes by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. N. Engl. J. Med. 322, 223–228 (1990).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, M. C. & Shulman, G. I. Mechanisms of insulin action and insulin resistance. Physiol. Rev. 98, 2133–2223 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Griffin, M. E. et al. Free fatty acid-induced insulin resistance is associated with activation of protein kinase C theta and alterations in the insulin signaling cascade. Diabetes 48, 1270–1274 (1999).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lyu, K. et al. A membrane-bound diacylglycerol species induces PKCЄ-mediated hepatic insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 32, 654–664 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Song, J. D. et al. Dissociation of muscle insulin resistance from alterations in mitochondrial substrate preference. Cell Metab. 32, 726–735 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gassaway, B. M. et al. PKCε contributes to lipid-induced insulin resistance through cross talk with p70S6K and through previously unknown regulators of insulin signaling. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, E8996–E9005 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dresner, A. et al. Effects of free fatty acids on glucose transport and IRS-1-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity. J. Clin. Invest. 103, 253–259 (1999).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Clerk, L. H. et al. Obesity blunts insulin-mediated microvascular recruitment in human forearm muscle. Diabetes 55, 1436–1442 (2006).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mayerson, A. B. et al. The effects of rosiglitazone on insulin sensitivity, lipolysis, and hepatic and skeletal muscle triglyceride content in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 51, 797–802 (2002).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Perseghin, G. et al. Increased glucose transport-phosphorylation and muscle glycogen synthesis after exercise training in insulin-resistant subjects. N. Engl. J. Med. 335, 1357–1362 (1996).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, K. F. et al. Reversal of nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis, hepatic insulin resistance, and hyperglycemia by moderate weight reduction in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 54, 603–608 (2005).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, K. F. et al. Mechanism of troglitazone action in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 49, 827–831 (2000).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, K. F. et al. Leptin reverses insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in patients with severe lipodystrophy. J. Clin. Invest. 109, 1345–1350 (2002).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rabøl, R., Petersen, K. F., Dufour, S., Flannery, C. & Shulman, G. I. Reversal of muscle insulin resistance with exercise reduces postprandial hepatic de novo lipogenesis in insulin resistant individuals. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 13705–13709 (2011).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Shulman, G. I. Ectopic fat in insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and cardiometabolic disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 371, 2237–2238 (2014).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Samuel, V. T. et al. Inhibition of protein kinase Cε prevents hepatic insulin resistance in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Clin. Invest. 117, 739–745 (2007).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ter Horst, K. W. et al. Hepatic diacylglycerol-associated protein kinase Cε translocation links hepatic steatosis to hepatic insulin resistance in humans. Cell Rep. 19, 1997–2004 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Li, X. et al. Mechanisms by which adiponectin reverses high fat diet-induced insulin resistance in mice. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 117, 32584–32593 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Perry, R. J. et al. Mechanisms by which a very-low-calorie diet reverses hyperglycemia in a rat model of type 2 diabetes. Cell Metab. 27, 210–217 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Perry, R. J., Zhang, D., Zhang, X. M., Boyer, J. L. & Shulman, G. I. Controlled-release mitochondrial protonophore reverses diabetes and steatohepatitis in rats. Science 347, 1253–1256 (2015). The authors showed that a novel formulation of a mitochondrial uncoupler reverses diabetes and steatohepatitis.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Weiss, R. et al. Low adiponectin levels in adolescent obesity: a marker of increased intramyocellular lipid accumulation. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 2014–2018 (2003).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Matsumoto, M. et al. An improved mouse model that rapidly develops fibrosis in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. 94, 93–103 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Meakin, P. J. et al. Susceptibility of Nrf2-null mice to steatohepatitis and cirrhosis upon consumption of a high-fat diet is associated with oxidative stress, perturbation of the unfolded protein response, and disturbance in the expression of metabolic enzymes but not with insulin resistance. Mol. Cell. Biol. 34, 3305–3320 (2014).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Abulizi, A. et al. Membrane-bound sn-1,2-diacylglycerols explain the dissociation of hepatic insulin resistance from hepatic steatosis in MTTP knockout mice. J. Lipid Res. 61, 1565–1576 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Brown, J. M. et al. CGI-58 knockdown in mice causes hepatic steatosis but prevents diet-induced obesity and glucose intolerance. J. Lipid Res. 51, 3306–3315 (2010).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sun, Z. et al. Hepatic Hdac3 promotes gluconeogenesis by repressing lipid synthesis and sequestration. Nat. Med. 18, 934–942 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Leamy, A. K., Egnatchik, R. A. & Young, J. D. Molecular mechanisms and the role of saturated fatty acids in the progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Prog. Lipid Res. 52, 165–174 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Choi, C. S. et al. Suppression of diacylglycerol acyltransferase-2 (DGAT2), but not DGAT1, with antisense oligonucleotides reverses diet-induced hepatic steatosis and insulin resistance. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 22678–22688 (2007).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Xu, W. et al. Ceramide synthesis inhibitors prevent lipid-induced insulin resistance through the DAG-PKCε-insulin receptor(T1150) phosphorylation pathway. Cell Rep. 43, 114746 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Jornayvaz, F. R. et al. Hepatic insulin resistance in mice with hepatic overexpression of diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 108, 5748–5752 (2011).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Perry, R. J. et al. Hepatic acetyl CoA links adipose tissue inflammation to hepatic insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Cell 160, 745–758 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Vatner, D. F. et al. Insulin-independent regulation of hepatic triglyceride synthesis by fatty acids. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 1143–1148 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Barrows, B. R. & Parks, E. J. Contributions of different fatty acid sources to very low-density lipoprotein-triacylglycerol in the fasted and fed states. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 91, 1446–1452 (2006).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ter Horst, K. W. et al. Hepatic insulin resistance is not pathway selective in humans with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Diabetes Care 44, 489–498 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Nier, A. et al. Adipokines and endotoxemia correlate with hepatic steatosis in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Nutrients https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030699 (2020).

  • Kaser, S. et al. Adiponectin and its receptors in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Gut 54, 117–121 (2005).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Begriche, K., Massart, J., Robin, M. A., Bonnet, F. & Fromenty, B. Mitochondrial adaptations and dysfunctions in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 58, 1497–1507 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Moore, M. P. et al. Compromised hepatic mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and reduced markers of mitochondrial turnover in human NAFLD. Hepatology 76, 1452–1465 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rector, R. S. et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction precedes insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis and contributes to the natural history of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in an obese rodent model. J. Hepatol. 52, 727–736 (2010).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Koliaki, C. et al. Adaptation of hepatic mitochondrial function in humans with non-alcoholic fatty liver is lost in steatohepatitis. Cell Metab. 21, 739–746 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sanyal, A. J. et al. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: association of insulin resistance and mitochondrial abnormalities. Gastroenterology 120, 1183–1192 (2001).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sunny, N. E., Parks, E. J., Browning, J. D. & Burgess, S. C. Excessive hepatic mitochondrial TCA cycle and gluconeogenesis in humans with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Cell Metab. 14, 804–810 (2011).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kotronen, A. et al. Liver fat and lipid oxidation in humans. Liver Int. 29, 1439–1446 (2009).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, K. F., Befroy, D. E., Dufour, S., Rothman, D. L. & Shulman, G. I. Assessment of hepatic mitochondrial oxidation and pyruvate cycling in NAFLD by 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Cell Metab. 24, 167–171 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Francque, S. M. et al. A randomized, controlled trial of the pan-PPAR agonist lanifibranor in NASH. N. Engl. J. Med. 385, 1547–1558 (2021). Phase 2 clinical trial showing the effectiveness of pan-PPAR agonization in MASH.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Harrison, S. A. et al. A phase 3, randomized, controlled trial of resmetirom in NASH with liver fibrosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 390, 497–509 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Harrison, S. A. et al. Resmetirom for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Nat. Med. 29, 2919–2928 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Goedeke, L. et al. Controlled-release mitochondrial protonophore (CRMP) reverses dyslipidemia and hepatic steatosis in dysmetabolic nonhuman primates. Sci. Transl. Med. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aay0284 (2019).

  • Noureddin, M. et al. Safety and efficacy of once-daily HU6 versus placebo in people with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and high BMI: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2a trial. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 8, 1094–1105 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, K. F., Dufour, S., Mehal, W. Z. & Shulman, G. I. Glucagon promotes increased hepatic mitochondrial oxidation and pyruvate carboxylase flux in humans with fatty liver disease. Cell Metab. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2024.07.023 (2024).

  • Befroy, D. E. et al. Direct assessment of hepatic mitochondrial oxidative and anaplerotic fluxes in humans using dynamic 13C magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Nat. Med. 20, 98–102 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pandey, A. et al. Novel controlled metabolic accelerator for obesity-related HFpEF: the HuMAIN-HFpEF randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2025.0103 (2025).

  • Siddle, M. et al. Mechanistic insights into the liver-brain axis during chronic liver disease. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-025-01142-z (2025).

  • Carty, J. R. E. et al. Amygdala-liver signalling orchestrates glycaemic responses to stress. Nature 646, 697–706 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hwang, J. et al. Liver-innervating vagal sensory neurons are indispensable for the development of hepatic steatosis and anxiety-like behavior in diet-induced obese mice. Nat. Commun. 16, 991 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Rose, J. P. et al. FGF21 reverses MASH through coordinated actions on the CNS and liver. Cell Metab. 37, 1515–1529 (2025). The authors found that the benefits of FGF21 signalling in MASH are mediated through both hepatic and CNS effects.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kang, D. et al. Perceived stress and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in apparently healthy men and women. Sci. Rep. 10, 38 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kim, D. et al. Depression is associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease among adults in the United States. Aliment Pharmacol. Ther. 50, 590–598 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Youssef, N. A. et al. Associations of depression, anxiety and antidepressants with histological severity of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Liver Int. 33, 1062–1070 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kullmann, S. et al. Brain insulin sensitivity is linked to adiposity and body fat distribution. Nat. Commun. 11, 1841 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kullmann, S. et al. A short-term, high-caloric diet has prolonged effects on brain insulin action in men. Nat. Metab. 7, 469–477 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Patke, A., Young, M. W. & Axelrod, S. Molecular mechanisms and physiological importance of circadian rhythms. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 21, 67–84 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huang, H., Liu, Z., Xie, J. & Xu, C. Association between night shift work and NAFLD: a prospective analysis of 281,280 UK Biobank participants. BMC Publ. Health 23, 1282 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Singh, A. et al. Night shift-induced circadian disruption: links to initiation of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and risk of hepatic cancer. Hepatoma Res. https://doi.org/10.20517/2394-5079.2024.88 (2024).

  • Lee, Y. & Lee, W. Shift work and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in young, healthy workers. Sci. Rep. 14, 19367 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Marjot, T. et al. Human MASLD is a diurnal disease driven by multisystem insulin resistance and reduced insulin availability at night. Cell Metab. 38, 474–492 (2026). This study showed that human MASLD is a diurnal disease with lower insulin secretion and increased insulin resistance and DNL during the nighttime.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kohsaka, A. et al. High-fat diet disrupts behavioral and molecular circadian rhythms in mice. Cell Metab. 6, 414–421 (2007).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sinturel, F. et al. Diurnal oscillations in liver mass and cell size accompany ribosome assembly cycles. Cell 169, 651–663 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kettner, N. M. et al. Circadian homeostasis of liver metabolism suppresses hepatocarcinogenesis. Cancer Cell 30, 909–924 (2016). The authors demonstrated that circadian disruption alters hepatic metabolism driving steatosis and liver cancer in mice.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Padilla, J. et al. Circadian dysfunction induces NAFLD-related human liver cancer in a mouse model. J. Hepatol. 80, 282–292 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Chaix, A., Lin, T., Le, H. D., Chang, M. W. & Panda, S. Time-restricted feeding prevents obesity and metabolic syndrome in mice lacking a circadian clock. Cell Metab. 29, 303–319 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Todoric, J. et al. Fructose stimulated de novo lipogenesis is promoted by inflammation. Nat. Metab. 2, 1034–1045 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhao, S. et al. Dietary fructose feeds hepatic lipogenesis via microbiota-derived acetate. Nature 579, 586–591 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sakuma, I. et al. Lysophosphatidic acid triggers inflammation in the liver and white adipose tissue in rat models of 1-acyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase 2 deficiency and overnutrition. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 120, e2312666120 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sakuma, I. et al. Liver lipid droplet cholesterol content is a key determinant of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 122, e2502978122 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Smith, G. I. et al. Insulin resistance drives hepatic de novo lipogenesis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Clin. Invest. 130, 1453–1460 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Slusher, A. L. et al. ATGL links insulin dysregulation to insulin resistance in adolescents with obesity and hepatosteatosis. J. Clin. Invest. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci184740 (2025).

  • Ajoolabady, A. et al. Endoplasmic reticulum stress in liver diseases. Hepatology 77, 619–639 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lebeaupin, C. et al. Endoplasmic reticulum stress signalling and the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Hepatol. 69, 927–947 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Li, X. et al. Activated ATF6α is a hepatic tumour driver restricting immunosurveillance. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-10036-8 (2026). The authors showed that chronic, unrestrained ER stress drives liver injury and liver cancer.

  • Henkel, A. S. Unfolded protein response sensors in hepatic lipid metabolism and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Semin. Liver Dis. 38, 320–332 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kim, J. Y. et al. ER stress drives lipogenesis and steatohepatitis via caspase-2 activation of S1P. Cell 175, 133–145 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hazari, Y. et al. Targeting the ER stress sensor IRE1 protects the liver from fibrosis through the downregulation of the proteostasis factor P4HB/PDIA1. Hepatology https://doi.org/10.1097/hep.0000000000001335 (2025).

  • Boslem, E. et al. Therapeutic blockade of ER stress and inflammation prevents NASH and progression to HCC. Sci. Adv. 9, eadh0831 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Govaere, O. et al. Transcriptomic profiling across the nonalcoholic fatty liver disease spectrum reveals gene signatures for steatohepatitis and fibrosis. Sci. Transl. Med. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aba4448 (2020). This study conducted an unbiased transcriptomic analyses across the MASLD spectrum and identified distinct signatures for steatohepatitis and fibrosis.

  • Patel, S. et al. GDF15 provides an endocrine signal of nutritional stress in mice and humans. Cell Metab. 29, 707–718 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kim, J. et al. TFEB-GDF15 axis protects against obesity and insulin resistance as a lysosomal stress response. Nat. Metab. 3, 410–427 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Coll, A. P. et al. GDF15 mediates the effects of metformin on body weight and energy balance. Nature 578, 444–448 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Seedorf, K. et al. Selective disruption of NRF2-KEAP1 interaction leads to NASH resolution and reduction of liver fibrosis in mice. JHEP Rep. 5, 100651 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Govaere, O. et al. A proteo-transcriptomic map of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease signatures. Nat. Metab. 5, 572–578 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Komatsu, M. et al. The selective autophagy substrate p62 activates the stress responsive transcription factor Nrf2 through inactivation of Keap1. Nat. Cell Biol. 12, 213–223 (2010).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Jara, M. et al. Modulation of metabolic, inflammatory and fibrotic pathways by semaglutide in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis. Nat. Med. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-025-03799-0 (2025).

  • Arab, J. P., Karpen, S. J., Dawson, P. A., Arrese, M. & Trauner, M. Bile acids and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: Molecular insights and therapeutic perspectives. Hepatology 65, 350–362 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Govaere, O. et al. Pharmacogene expression during progression of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: Studies on mRNA and protein levels and their relevance to drug treatment. Biochem. Pharmacol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116249 (2024).

  • Umemura, A. et al. p62, upregulated during preneoplasia, induces hepatocellular carcinogenesis by maintaining survival of stressed HCC-initiating cells. Cancer Cell 29, 935–948 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kwon, J., Kim, J. & Kim, K. I. Crosstalk between endoplasmic reticulum stress response and autophagy in human diseases. Anim. Cells Syst. 27, 29–37 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Liu, G. Y. & Sabatini, D. M. mTOR at the nexus of nutrition, growth, ageing and disease. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 21, 183–203 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Steinberg, G. R. & Hardie, D. G. New insights into activation and function of the AMPK. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 24, 255–272 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Umemura, A. et al. Liver damage, inflammation, and enhanced tumorigenesis after persistent mTORC1 inhibition. Cell Metab. 20, 133–144 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Uehara, K. et al. Activation of liver mTORC1 protects against NASH via dual regulation of VLDL-TAG secretion and de novo lipogenesis. Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 13, 1625–1647 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gosis, B. S. et al. Inhibition of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in mice by selective inhibition of mTORC1. Science 376, eabf8271 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bae, E. J. et al. Liver-specific p70 S6 kinase depletion protects against hepatic steatosis and systemic insulin resistance. J. Biol. Chem. 287, 18769–18780 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lluch, A. et al. A compound directed against S6K1 hampers fat mass expansion and mitigates diet-induced hepatosteatosis. JCI Insight https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.150461 (2022).

  • Garcia, D. et al. Genetic liver-specific AMPK activation protects against diet-induced obesity and NAFLD. Cell Rep. 26, 192–208 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Woods, A. et al. Liver-specific activation of AMPK prevents steatosis on a high-fructose diet. Cell Rep. 18, 3043–3051 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhao, P. et al. An AMPK-caspase-6 axis controls liver damage in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Science 367, 652–660 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Amin, N. B. et al. Efficacy and safety of an orally administered DGAT2 inhibitor alone or coadministered with a liver-targeted ACC inhibitor in adults with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH): rationale and design of the phase II, dose-ranging, dose-finding, randomised, placebo-controlled MIRNA (Metabolic Interventions to Resolve NASH with fibrosis) study. BMJ Open 12, e056159 (2022).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wong, V. W. et al. Efficacy and safety of ervogastat alone and in combination with clesacostat in patients with biopsy-confirmed metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis and F2-F3 fibrosis (MIRNA): results from a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, double-dummy study. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2468-1253(25)00128-1 (2025).

  • Cusi, K. et al. Efficacy and safety of PXL770, a direct AMP kinase activator, for the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (STAMP-NAFLD): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2a study. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6, 889–902 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gallage, S. et al. A 5:2 intermittent fasting regimen ameliorates NASH and fibrosis and blunts HCC development via hepatic PPARα and PCK1. Cell Metab. 36, 1371–1393 (2024). The authors demonstrated that a 5:2 intermittent fasting regimen can improve MASH and blunt subsequent liver cancer development via hepatic PPARα and PCK1.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Boulter, L. et al. Macrophage-derived Wnt opposes Notch signaling to specify hepatic progenitor cell fate in chronic liver disease. Nat. Med. 18, 572–579 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pu, W. et al. Bipotent transitional liver progenitor cells contribute to liver regeneration. Nat. Genet. 55, 651–664 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Raven, A. et al. Cholangiocytes act as facultative liver stem cells during impaired hepatocyte regeneration. Nature 547, 350–354 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gupta, V., Sehrawat, T. S., Pinzani, M. & Strazzabosco, M. Portal fibrosis and the ductular reaction: pathophysiological role in the progression of liver disease and translational opportunities. Gastroenterology https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2024.07.044 (2024).

  • Algueró-Nadal, A. et al. Steatotic liver disease induces YAP/TAZ-driven cell competition that can suppress tumor initiation. J. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2025.06.002 (2025).

  • Yu, J. et al. Hepatocyte TLR4 triggers inter-hepatocyte Jagged1/Notch signaling to determine NASH-induced fibrosis. Sci. Transl. Med. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.abe1692 (2021).

  • Gribben, C. et al. Acquisition of epithelial plasticity in human chronic liver disease. Nature 630, 166–173 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Du, K., Umbaugh, D. S., Ren, N. & Diehl, A. M. Cellular senescence in liver diseases: from molecular drivers to therapeutic targeting. J. Hepatol. 84, 194–212 (2026).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Acosta, J. C. et al. A complex secretory program orchestrated by the inflammasome controls paracrine senescence. Nat. Cell Biol. 15, 978–990 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gallage, S. et al. Ribosomal S6 kinase 1 regulates inflammaging via the senescence secretome. Nat. Aging https://doi.org/10.1038/s43587-024-00695-z (2024).

  • Herranz, N. et al. mTOR regulates MAPKAPK2 translation to control the senescence-associated secretory phenotype. Nat. Cell Biol. 17, 1205–1217 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Duran, I. et al. Detection of senescence using machine learning algorithms based on nuclear features. Nat. Commun. 15, 1041 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • McHugh, D. et al. COPI vesicle formation and N-myristoylation are targetable vulnerabilities of senescent cells. Nat. Cell Biol. 25, 1804–1820 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ogrodnik, M. et al. Cellular senescence drives age-dependent hepatic steatosis. Nat. Commun. 8, 15691 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gu, L. et al. FBP1 controls liver cancer evolution from senescent MASH hepatocytes. Nature 637, 461–469 (2025). This study identified that FPB1 is a critical break preventing the transition of senescent MASH hepatocytes towards carcinogenesis.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mridha, A. R. et al. NLRP3 inflammasome blockade reduces liver inflammation and fibrosis in experimental NASH in mice. J. Hepatol. 66, 1037–1046 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Grohmann, M. et al. Obesity drives STAT-1-dependent NASH and STAT-3-dependent HCC. Cell 175, 1289–1306 (2018). This study showed that MASH and fibrosis can be uncoupled from HCC development in a STAT-dependent manner.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kazankov, K. et al. The role of macrophages in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 16, 145–159 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhang, T., Horn, P., Peiseler, M. & Tacke, F. Macrophage heterogeneity and plasticity in liver injury and repair mechanisms. Stem Cells https://doi.org/10.1093/stmcls/sxaf072 (2025).

  • Miyamoto, Y. et al. Periportal macrophages protect against commensal-driven liver inflammation. Nature 629, 901–909 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Cai, B. et al. Macrophage MerTK promotes liver fibrosis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Cell Metab. 31, 406–421 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Govaere, O. et al. Macrophage scavenger receptor 1 mediates lipid-induced inflammation in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Hepatol. 76, 1001–1012 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Tran, S. et al. Impaired Kupffer cell self-renewal alters the liver response to lipid overload during non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Immunity 53, 627–640 (2020). This study showed that lipotoxicity during MASLD progression impairs Kupffer cell renewal, resulting in monocyte-derived Kupffer cells that contribute to the Kupffer cell pool.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Miura, K., Yang, L., van Rooijen, N., Ohnishi, H. & Seki, E. Hepatic recruitment of macrophages promotes nonalcoholic steatohepatitis through CCR2. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 302, G1310–G1321 (2012).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pradere, J. P. et al. Hepatic macrophages but not dendritic cells contribute to liver fibrosis by promoting the survival of activated hepatic stellate cells in mice. Hepatology 58, 1461–1473 (2013).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Park, E. J. et al. Dietary and genetic obesity promote liver inflammation and tumorigenesis by enhancing IL-6 and TNF expression. Cell 140, 197–208 (2010). This study showed that obesity promote hepatic inflammation and tumorigenesis through IL-6 and TNF.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Boesch, M. et al. Integrated multi-omics identifies distinct macrophage alterations during progression of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis. Nat. Genetics https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-026-02600-3 (2026).

  • Han, H. et al. Macrophage-derived osteopontin (SPP1) protects from nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Gastroenterology 165, 201–217 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Remmerie, A. et al. Osteopontin expression identifies a subset of recruited macrophages distinct from Kupffer cells in the fatty liver. Immunity 53, 641–657 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Li, Z. et al. Spatially resolved multi-omics of human metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. Nat. Genet. 57, 3112–3125 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hendrikx, T. et al. Soluble TREM2 levels reflect the recruitment and expansion of TREM2+ macrophages that localize to fibrotic areas and limit NASH. J. Hepatol. 77, 1373–1385 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, X. et al. Prolonged hypernutrition impairs TREM2-dependent efferocytosis to license chronic liver inflammation and NASH development. Immunity 56, 58–77 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ganguly, S. et al. Lipid-associated macrophages’ promotion of fibrosis resolution during MASH regression requires TREM2. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2405746121 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • De Ponti, F. F. et al. Spatially restricted and ontogenically distinct hepatic macrophages are required for tissue repair. Immunity 58, 362–380 (2025).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ramachandran, P. et al. Resolving the fibrotic niche of human liver cirrhosis at single-cell level. Nature 575, 512–518 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhou, L. et al. Hepatic danger signaling triggers TREM2+ macrophage induction and drives steatohepatitis via MS4A7-dependent inflammasome activation. Sci. Transl. Med. 16, eadk1866 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Guillot, A. et al. Mapping the hepatic immune landscape identifies monocytic macrophages as key drivers of steatohepatitis and cholangiopathy progression. Hepatology 78, 150–166 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Liu, H. et al. Reactive cholangiocyte-derived ORM2 drives a pathogenic modulation of the injured biliary niche through macrophage reprogramming. Gut https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2024-334425 (2025).

  • Angulo, P. et al. Liver fibrosis, but no other histologic features, is associated with long-term outcomes of patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 149, 389–397 (2015).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Brunt, E. M. et al. Portal chronic inflammation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a histologic marker of advanced NAFLD-clinicopathologic correlations from the nonalcoholic steatohepatitis clinical research network. Hepatology 49, 809–820 (2009).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Pfister, D. et al. NASH limits anti-tumour surveillance in immunotherapy-treated HCC. Nature 592, 450–456 (2021). This study showed that MASH-HCC is less efficacious to immunotherapy in preclinical mouse models.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dudek, M. et al. Auto-aggressive CXCR6+ CD8 T cells cause liver immune pathology in NASH. Nature 592, 444–449 (2021). The authors showed that tissue-resident CXCR6+CD8+ T cells display an autoaggressive phenotype that promotes MASH.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Krenkel, O. et al. Therapeutic inhibition of inflammatory monocyte recruitment reduces steatohepatitis and liver fibrosis. Hepatology 67, 1270–1283 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kotsiliti, E. et al. Intestinal B cells license metabolic T-cell activation in NASH microbiota/antigen-independently and contribute to fibrosis by IgA-FcR signalling. J. Hepatol. 79, 296–313 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ramadori, P., Klag, T., Malek, N. P. & Heikenwalder, M. Platelets in chronic liver disease, from bench to bedside. JHEP Rep. 1, 448–459 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Deczkowska, A. et al. XCR1+ type 1 conventional dendritic cells drive liver pathology in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Nat. Med. 27, 1043–1054 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petriv, N. et al. Essential roles of B cell subsets in the progression of MASLD and HCC. JHEP Rep. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhepr.2024.101189 (2024).

  • Li, L. et al. MIG/CXCL9 exacerbates the progression of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease by disrupting Treg/Th17 balance. Exp. Cell. Res. 407, 112801 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sanyal, A. J. et al. Prospective study of outcomes in adults with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 385, 1559–1569 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lin, H. et al. Vibration-controlled transient elastography scores to predict liver-related events in steatotic liver disease. JAMA 331, 1287–1297 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL), European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) & European Association for the Study of Obesity (EASO). EASL-EASD-EASO Clinical Practice Guidelines on the management of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). J. Hepatol. 81, 492–542 (2024). The European guidelines for the clinical management of MASLD.

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Paternostro, R. et al. Hepatic venous pressure gradient predicts risk of hepatic decompensation and liver-related mortality in patients with MASLD. J. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2024.05.033 (2024).

  • Hammerich, L. & Tacke, F. Hepatic inflammatory responses in liver fibrosis. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 20, 633–646 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Schwabe, R. F., Tabas, I. & Pajvani, U. B. Mechanisms of fibrosis development in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Gastroenterology 158, 1913–1928 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lei, L. et al. Portal fibroblasts with mesenchymal stem cell features form a reservoir of proliferative myofibroblasts in liver fibrosis. Hepatology 76, 1360–1375 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mederacke, I. et al. Fate tracing reveals hepatic stellate cells as dominant contributors to liver fibrosis independent of its aetiology. Nat. Commun. 4, 2823 (2013).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Kim, H. Y. et al. Multi-modal analysis of human hepatic stellate cells identifies novel therapeutic targets for metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. J. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2024.10.044 (2024).

  • Sugimoto, A. et al. Hepatic stellate cells control liver zonation, size and functions via R-spondin 3. Nature 640, 752–761 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Filliol, A. et al. Opposing roles of hepatic stellate cell subpopulations in hepatocarcinogenesis. Nature 610, 356–365 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Trinh, V. Q. et al. Hepatic stellate cells maintain liver homeostasis through paracrine neurotrophin-3 signaling that induces hepatocyte proliferation. Sci. Signal. 16, eadf6696 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bogomolova, A., Balakrishnan, A., Ott, M. & Sharma, A. D. “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly”—about diverse phenotypes of hepatic stellate cells in the liver. Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 17, 607–622 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Tsuchida, T. & Friedman, S. L. Mechanisms of hepatic stellate cell activation. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 14, 397–411 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Horn, P. & Tacke, F. Metabolic reprogramming in liver fibrosis. Cell Metab. 36, 1439–1455 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Bendixen, S. M. et al. Single cell-resolved study of advanced murine MASH reveals a homeostatic pericyte signaling module. J. Hepatol. 80, 467–481 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Wang, S. et al. An autocrine signaling circuit in hepatic stellate cells underlies advanced fibrosis in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Sci. Transl. Med. 15, eadd3949 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yashaswini, C. N. et al. Phenotypes and ontogeny of senescent hepatic stellate cells in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis. J. Hepatol. 81, 207–217 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Krizhanovsky, V. et al. Senescence of activated stellate cells limits liver fibrosis. Cell 134, 657–667 (2008).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yashaswini, C. N. et al. Anti-FAP CAR T cells produced in vivo reduce fibrosis and restore liver homeostasis in metabolic dysfunction–associated steatohepatitis. Sci. Transl. Med. 18, eadx0368 (2026).

  • Amor, C. et al. Senolytic CAR T cells reverse senescence-associated pathologies. Nature 583, 127–132 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Dai, H. et al. Chimeric antigen receptor-modified macrophages ameliorate liver fibrosis in preclinical models. J. Hepatol. 80, 913–927 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Peiseler, M. et al. Immune mechanisms linking metabolic injury to inflammation and fibrosis in fatty liver disease—novel insights into cellular communication circuits. J. Hepatol. 77, 1136–1160 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Lau, H. C., Zhang, X. & Yu, J. Gut microbiome in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease and associated hepatocellular carcinoma. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-025-01089-1 (2025).

  • Lang, S. et al. Intestinal virome signature associated with severity of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 159, 1839–1852 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Demir, M. et al. The fecal mycobiome in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Hepatol. 76, 788–799 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Mouries, J. et al. Microbiota-driven gut vascular barrier disruption is a prerequisite for non-alcoholic steatohepatitis development. J. Hepatol. 71, 1216–1228 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Llorente, C. et al. mAChR4 suppresses liver disease via GAP-induced antimicrobial immunity. Nature 646, 180–189 (2025). This study showed that intestinal antimicrobial immunity reduces bacterial translocation to protect against MASH.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhang, P. et al. IL-22 resolves MASLD via enterocyte STAT3 restoration of diet-perturbed intestinal homeostasis. Cell Metab. 36, 2341–2354 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Harte, A. L. et al. Elevated endotoxin levels in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J. Inflamm. 7, 15 (2010).

    Article 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Carpino, G. et al. Increased liver localization of lipopolysaccharides in human and experimental NAFLD. Hepatology 72, 470–485 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Ferslew, B. C. et al. Altered bile acid metabolome in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 60, 3318–3328 (2015).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Jiao, N. et al. Suppressed hepatic bile acid signalling despite elevated production of primary and secondary bile acids in NAFLD. Gut 67, 1881–1891 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yoshimoto, S. et al. Obesity-induced gut microbial metabolite promotes liver cancer through senescence secretome. Nature 499, 97–101 (2013). This study showed that the obesity-induced secondary bile acid DCA drives liver injury and liver cancer.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Aranha, M. M. et al. Bile acid levels are increased in the liver of patients with steatohepatitis. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 20, 519–525 (2008).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Zhang, X. et al. Dietary cholesterol drives fatty liver-associated liver cancer by modulating gut microbiota and metabolites. Gut 70, 761–774 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gallage, S. et al. Spontaneous cholemia in C57BL/6 mice predisposes to liver cancer in NASH. Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 13, 875–878 (2022).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Fuchs, C. D. & Trauner, M. Role of bile acids and their receptors in gastrointestinal and hepatic pathophysiology. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 19, 432–450 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sun, L., Cai, J. & Gonzalez, F. J. The role of farnesoid X receptor in metabolic diseases, and gastrointestinal and liver cancer. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 18, 335–347 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Beraza, N. et al. Nor-ursodeoxycholic acid reverses hepatocyte-specific nemo-dependent steatohepatitis. Gut 60, 387–396 (2011).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yang, M. et al. Western diet contributes to the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis in male mice via remodeling gut microbiota and increasing production of 2-oleoylglycerol. Nat. Commun. 14, 228 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Loo, T. M. Gut microbiota promotes obesity-associated liver cancer through PGE2-mediated suppression of antitumor immunity. Cancer Discov. 7, 522–538 (2017).

  • Meijnikman, A. S. et al. Microbiome-derived ethanol in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nat. Med. 28, 2100–2106 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Yuan, J. et al. Fatty liver disease caused by high-alcohol-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Cell Metab. 30, 675–688 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Song, Q. et al. Bifidobacterium pseudolongum-generated acetate suppresses non-alcoholic fatty liver disease-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. J. Hepatol. 79, 1352–1365 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Nie, Q. et al. Gut symbionts alleviate MASH through a secondary bile acid biosynthetic pathway. Cell 187, 2717–2734 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Gallage, S. et al. A researcher’s guide to preclinical mouse NASH models. Nat. Metab. 4, 1632–1649 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Leslie, J. et al. Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease and steatohepatitis-associated hepatocarcinoma preclinical models. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-025-01162-9 (2026).

  • Karasawa, T. et al. Unexpected effects of semaglutide on skeletal muscle mass and force-generating capacity in mice. Cell Metab. 37, 1619–1620 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Xie, Y., Choi, T. & Al-Aly, Z. Mapping the effectiveness and risks of GLP-1 receptor agonists. Nat. Med. 31, 951–962 (2025).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • West, S. et al. Weight regain after cessation of medication for weight management: systematic review and meta-analysis. Brit. Med. J. 392, e085304 (2026).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Albhaisi, S., Chowdhury, A. & Sanyal, A. J. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in lean individuals. JHEP Rep. 1, 329–341 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Sato-Espinoza, K., Chotiprasidhi, P., Huaman, M. R. & Díaz-Ferrer, J. Update in lean metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. World J. Hepatol. 16, 452–464 (2024).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Danpanichkul, P., Suparan, K., Kim, D. & Wijarnpreecha, K. What is new in metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in lean individuals: from bench to bedside. J. Clin. Med. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13010278 (2024).

  • Eslam, M. et al. Metabolic (dysfunction)-associated fatty liver disease in individuals of normal weight. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 19, 638–651 (2022).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Hagström, H. et al. Risk for development of severe liver disease in lean patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a long-term follow-up study. Hepatol. Commun. 2, 48–57 (2018).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Huo, Z. et al. Long-term prognosis of lean MASLD: evidence from three population-based prospective cohorts. Gut https://doi.org/10.1136/gutjnl-2025-336127 (2025).

  • Ezeani, C., Omaliko, C., Al-Ajlouni, Y. A. & Njei, B. Mortality, hepatic decompensation, and cardiovascular- and renal-related outcomes in lean versus non-lean patients hospitalized with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH). Cureus 16, e60968 (2024).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Petersen, K. F., Dufour, S., Li, F., Rothman, D. L. & Shulman, G. I. Ethnic and sex differences in hepatic lipid content and related cardiometabolic parameters in lean individuals. JCI Insight https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.157906 (2022).

  • Tuomola, N. et al. Mildly elevated liver lipid content is characterised by reduced insulin sensitivity. JHEP Rep. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhepr.2025.101535 (2025).

  • Chen, F. et al. Lean NAFLD: a distinct entity shaped by differential metabolic adaptation. Hepatology 71, 1213–1227 (2020). This study showed that MASLD in lean individuals display a distinct bile acid and microbial profile as well as a metabolic profile.

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     

  • Alharthi, J. et al. Loss of metabolic adaptation in lean MAFLD is driven by endotoxemia leading to epigenetic reprogramming. Metabolism 144, 155583 (2023).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar
     



  • Source link

    Keep Up to Date with the Most Important News

    By pressing the Subscribe button, you confirm that you have read and are agreeing to our Privacy Policy and Terms of Use
    Add a comment Add a comment

    Leave a Reply

    Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

    Previous Post
    City of slop | Nature

    City of slop | Nature

    Next Post
    Rewiring the ribosome to translate proteins encoded in its own RNA

    Rewiring the ribosome to translate proteins encoded in its own RNA

    Advertisement